c0c65db05140 b' effects of new donor deferrals upon supply of blood/blood components

effects of new donor deferrals upon supply of blood/blood components

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' b" effects of new donor deferrals upon supply of blood/blood components effects of new donor deferrals upon supply of blood/blood components ==================================================================== * fda- recommended deferrals: 5% of donors deferred (reds study) -- + greater proportion in coastal cities + 35% of nybc supply affected (euroblood + u.s. deferrals) * industry-proposed deferrals (3 months u.k.; 6 months europe): 3% donors deferred (industry study); 9 % donors deferred (reds study) -- previous slide next slide back to first slide view graphic version ' " 693bac4b2b13 b' feeding your toddler skip navigation
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feeding your toddler

during the toddler period, your child will continue to develop his or her sense of autonomy. at times, young children may refuse to eat certain foods or get "stuck" on a specific food. this is only a phase and even a way of asserting themselves. as long as your child does not refuse all foods of the same food group, it will be ok.

offer 3 meals a days with planned snacks in between. a serving size for a toddler is smaller than an adult portion. a child's serving size is approximately 1/4 to 1/2 an adult's portion size. your child's appetite can vary - some days they won't eat much at all and other days they will want seconds!

keep offering new foods

most children learn to like a food after it has been offered many times. offer foods often and show your joy with eating foods. children may not like certain foods because they are mixed with other foods or full of mysterious sauces. so, skip the casserole if your child does not like it and serve the same foods separately on the plate.

  • be sure to tell the food is good tasting without over emphasizing it.
  • keep your opinion to yourself about the foods you do not like.
  • serve the same food in different forms.
  • offer the new food first, followed by familiar foods that your child already likes.
  • offer you kid the same foods the rest of the family is having.

how well is my child growing?

have your doctor follow your child's growth on a growth chart. this will give you a precise idea of how your child is growing.

if you feel your child is not growing enough: check with your doctor first to see if your child needs to eat more. children have a very small stomach. they often need to eat 5 to 6 small meals a day to get the amount of foods they need to grow.

if you feel your child is overweight: check with your doctor first to see if your child has become overweight. restricting calories is not a good choice. instead, give your child a chance to grow into the weight as he or she gets taller. provide healthy food choices and help him or her spend more time being physically active.

  • keep your home stocked with breads, cereals, fruits, vegetables, low-fat milk products (for children over 2 years) and lean meats. don't overdo snack foods like pop, chips, candy, etc.
  • serve meals and snacks about the same time everyday.
  • make a house rule: eat only at the dining table.
  • reward kids with your love and attention, but never with food.
  • talk to your child about feelings and how to solve problems, other than using food as a form of escaping from them.
  • make fun activities a part of the things you do together as a family.
  • limit the amount of tv that you and your family watch to about two hours a day.

how can meal times be pleasant?

meal time can be a great opportunity to teach positive eating behaviors. have your family sit at the table to eat and socialize together.

  • turn off the tv during meal times
  • focus on each other
  • set a good example by eating calmly and taking pleasure in the meal moment

make meal time a great interaction between you and your child. it's important for you to provide structure and limits so your child has an opportunity to make decisions that are safe. here's an approach you can use to do that:

you can decide: which foods you provide to your child, the time and the place where foods are eaten.

let your child decide: which foods to eat and how much.

this approach for creating a positive feeding relationship with your child was developed by ellyn satter. for more information, visit ellyn satter's website at: http://www.ellynsatter.com

for more information about foods to feed children, click on the food guide pyramid at:

http://www.usda.gov/news/usdakids/index.html

the wic program can help answer your nutrition questions. if you believe your child qualifies for wic, contact your local wic office at 1-800-26birth.



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' b' feeding your toddler skip navigation michigan.gov home mdch home sitemap contact mdch > women, infants & children about wic nutrition breastfeeding local wic agencies farmer's market frequently asked questions information for wic providers fraud & abuse > children & families > community collaboratives (pit crew) feeding your toddler during the toddler period, your child will continue to develop his or her sense of autonomy. at times, young children may refuse to eat certain foods or get "stuck" on a specific food. this is only a phase and even a way of asserting themselves. as long as your child does not refuse all foods of the same food group, it will be ok. offer 3 meals a days with planned snacks in between. a serving size for a toddler is smaller than an adult portion. a child's serving size is approximately 1/4 to 1/2 an adult's portion size. your child's appetite can vary - some days they won't eat much at all and other days they will want seconds! keep offering new foods most children learn to like a food after it has been offered many times. offer foods often and show your joy with eating foods. children may not like certain foods because they are mixed with other foods or full of mysterious sauces. so, skip the casserole if your child does not like it and serve the same foods separately on the plate. be sure to tell the food is good tasting without over emphasizing it. keep your opinion to yourself about the foods you do not like. serve the same food in different forms. offer the new food first, followed by familiar foods that your child already likes. offer you kid the same foods the rest of the family is having. how well is my child growing? have your doctor follow your child's growth on a growth chart. this will give you a precise idea of how your child is growing. if you feel your child is not growing enough: check with your doctor first to see if your child needs to eat more. children have a very small stomach. they often need to eat 5 to 6 small meals a day to get the amount of foods they need to grow. if you feel your child is overweight: check with your doctor first to see if your child has become overweight. restricting calories is not a good choice. instead, give your child a chance to grow into the weight as he or she gets taller. provide healthy food choices and help him or her spend more time being physically active. keep your home stocked with breads, cereals, fruits, vegetables, low-fat milk products (for children over 2 years) and lean meats. don't overdo snack foods like pop, chips, candy, etc. serve meals and snacks about the same time everyday. make a house rule: eat only at the dining table. reward kids with your love and attention, but never with food. talk to your child about feelings and how to solve problems, other than using food as a form of escaping from them. make fun activities a part of the things you do together as a family. limit the amount of tv that you and your family watch to about two hours a day. how can meal times be pleasant? meal time can be a great opportunity to teach positive eating behaviors. have your family sit at the table to eat and socialize together. turn off the tv during meal times focus on each other set a good example by eating calmly and taking pleasure in the meal moment make meal time a great interaction between you and your child. it's important for you to provide structure and limits so your child has an opportunity to make decisions that are safe. here's an approach you can use to do that: you can decide: which foods you provide to your child, the time and the place where foods are eaten. let your child decide: which foods to eat and how much. this approach for creating a positive feeding relationship with your child was developed by ellyn satter. for more information, visit ellyn satter's website at: http://www.ellynsatter.com for more information about foods to feed children, click on the food guide pyramid at: http://www.usda.gov/news/usdakids/index.html the wic program can help answer your nutrition questions. if you believe your child qualifies for wic, contact your local wic office at 1-800-26birth. related content > smart moves when feeding your baby michigan.gov home mdch home site map contact mdch state web sitesprivacy policy link policy accessibility policy security policycopyright © 2001-2003 state of michigan ' ' b85eefda1952 b' re: schema article kiss

re: schema article kiss


 all, this is a useful debate and part of our learning curve! what worried me were the 'surprises' in what happens in some circumstances - and it is similar surprises that are a problem with express, e.g. use/reference differences (group/complex type...). i tend to agree with ed when he says: > - the whole complex type feature is extremely complex and difficult >to comprehend, and has all kinds of complex interactions >among declarations. and >i do not see a value in trying to guess which 30% of xml schema >will have the most support; what we should be using is the 30% that >most simply and clearly expresses our models and meets our >needs, hoping that we are not alone. but we must also try not to be too clever with this (and this is addressed to myself as much as anyone!), or use the facilities inappropriately. quite a bit of learning to do! robin [i have not had a look at relax ng as yet but i did like the feel of trex which is a part of it.] at 12:18 pm -0400 28/6/01, ed barkmeyer wrote: >all, > >to make it clear that nist does not have a considered opinion on this point: > >i agree with henry that named complex types have value in that they >add expressive capability to an xml schema that groups do >not. this value is particularly useful in mapping from express, >because many defined data types are named aggregate types or >select types, which are best rendered into complex types in xml >schema. yes, they can be rendered into groups instead, but then ...cut -- ----------------------------------------------------------------- robin la fontaine, monsell edm ltd (xml file comparison, engineering data exchange and management using xml) tel: +44 1684 592 144 fax: +44 1684 594 504 email: robin@monsell.co.uk http://www.deltaxml.com 


date index | thread index | problems or questions? contact list-master@nist.gov
' b' --> re: schema article kiss re: schema article kiss ======================= * subject: re: schema article kiss * from: robin lafontaine * date: thu, 28 jun 2001 20:00:59 +0100 * content-type: text/plain; charset="us-ascii" ; format="flowed" * in-reply-to: <3b3b58c0.757ccc97@nist.gov> * references: <003d01c0ffd8$f698c600$5f4e0681@dmz.cme.nist.gov> <3b3b58c0.757ccc97@nist.gov> all, me were the 'surprises' in what happens in some circumstances - and this is a useful debate and part of our learning curve! what worried it is similar surprises that are a problem with express, e.g. use/reference differences (group/complex type...). i tend to agree with ed when he says: > - the whole complex type feature is extremely complex and difficult >to comprehend, and has all kinds of complex interactions >among declarations. and >i do not see a value in trying to guess which 30% of xml schema >will have the most support; what we should be using is the 30% that >most simply and clearly expresses our models and meets our >needs, hoping that we are not alone. but we must also try not to be too clever with this (and this is addressed to myself as much as anyone!), or use the facilities inappropriately. quite a bit of learning to do! robin [i have not had a look at relax ng as yet but i did like the feel of trex which is a part of it.] at 12:18 pm -0400 28/6/01, ed barkmeyer wrote: >all, > >to make it clear that nist does not have a considered opinion on this point: > >i agree with henry that named complex types have value in that they >add expressive capability to an xml schema that groups do >not. this value is particularly useful in mapping from express, >because many defined data types are named aggregate types or >select types, which are best rendered into complex types in xml >schema. yes, they can be rendered into groups instead, but then ...cut -- -- robin la fontaine, monsell edm ltd (xml file comparison, engineering data exchange and management using xml) tel: +44 1684 592 144 fax: +44 1684 594 504 email: robin@monsell.co.uk http://www.deltaxml.com * references: + schema article kiss - from: robin lafontaine + re: schema article kiss - from: ht@cogsci.ed.ac.uk (henry s. thompson) + re: schema article kiss - from: "josh lubell" + re: schema article kiss - from: ed barkmeyer * prev by date: re: schema article kiss * next by date: re: schema article kiss * prev by thread: re: schema article kiss * next by thread: re: schema article kiss date index thread index problems or questions? contact list-master@nist.gov ' ' 71109e6fbdbf b' the california spatial information library
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california digital raster graphics, 7.5 minute (o) series

this directory contains the 7.5 minute (o) series, albers nad27 untrimmed, digital raster graphics (drgs) for california, for usgs block identifier 38122.

all images contained within this directory are reprojected to the albers equal area projection. please refer to casil projection information for detailed projection information.

for web users, you can click on the image below to retrieve the geotiff file that corresponds to the selected point. position your mouse cursor above the point of interest for a tooltip that identifies the geotiff file you will obtain.


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  name last modified size description 
[dir] parent directory 26-nov-2003 15:58 - [ ] readme 21-mar-2003 16:51 1k [txt] readme.html 26-nov-2003 15:58 69k [img] readme.png 21-mar-2003 16:51 52k [ ] o38122a1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k vine hill [img] o38122a1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 10.3m vine hill [ ] o38122a2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k benicia [img] o38122a2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 20.1m benicia [ ] o38122a3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k mare island [img] o38122a3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 6.8m mare island [ ] o38122a4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k petaluma point [img] o38122a4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 4.9m petaluma point [ ] o38122a5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k novato [img] o38122a5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 17.0m novato [ ] o38122a6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k san geronimo [img] o38122a6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 13.8m san geronimo [ ] o38122a7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k inverness [img] o38122a7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 12.1m inverness [ ] o38122a8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k drakes bay [img] o38122a8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 9.9m drakes bay [ ] o38122b1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k fairfield south [img] o38122b1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 11.8m fairfield south [ ] o38122b2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k cordelia [img] o38122b2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 19.1m cordelia [ ] o38122b3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k cuttings wharf [img] o38122b3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 15.6m cuttings wharf [ ] o38122b4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k sears point [img] o38122b4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 10.9m sears point [ ] o38122b5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k petaluma river [img] o38122b5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 10.4m petaluma river [ ] o38122b6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k petaluma [img] o38122b6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 11.3m petaluma [ ] o38122b7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k point reyes ne [img] o38122b7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 11.6m point reyes ne [ ] o38122b8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k tomales [img] o38122b8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 8.0m tomales [ ] o38122c1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k fairfield north [img] o38122c1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 21.6m fairfield north [ ] o38122c2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k mt george [img] o38122c2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 22.5m mt george [ ] o38122c3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k napa [img] o38122c3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 16.3m napa [ ] o38122c4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k sonoma [img] o38122c4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 19.4m sonoma [ ] o38122c5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k glen ellen [img] o38122c5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 12.6m glen ellen [ ] o38122c6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k cotati [img] o38122c6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 10.4m cotati [ ] o38122c7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k two rock [img] o38122c7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 10.3m two rock [ ] o38122c8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k valley ford [img] o38122c8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 14.4m valley ford [ ] o38122d1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k mt vaca [img] o38122d1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 29.0m mt vaca [ ] o38122d2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k capell valley [img] o38122d2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 30.3m capell valley [ ] o38122d3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k yountville [img] o38122d3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 22.6m yountville [ ] o38122d4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k rutherford [img] o38122d4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 23.4m rutherford [ ] o38122d5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k kenwood [img] o38122d5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 15.7m kenwood [ ] o38122d6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k santa rosa [img] o38122d6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 16.2m santa rosa [ ] o38122d7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k sebastopol [img] o38122d7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 12.5m sebastopol [ ] o38122d8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k camp meeker [img] o38122d8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 14.4m camp meeker [ ] o38122e1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k monticello dam [img] o38122e1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 14.2m monticello dam [ ] o38122e2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k lake berryessa [img] o38122e2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 15.0m lake berryessa [ ] o38122e3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k chiles valley [img] o38122e3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 17.4m chiles valley [ ] o38122e4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k saint helena [img] o38122e4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 15.2m saint helena [ ] o38122e5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k calistoga [img] o38122e5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 18.2m calistoga [ ] o38122e6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k mark west springs [img] o38122e6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 15.7m mark west springs [ ] o38122e7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k healdsburg [img] o38122e7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 17.4m healdsburg [ ] o38122e8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k guerneville [img] o38122e8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 18.8m guerneville [ ] o38122f1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k esparto [img] o38122f1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 9.5m esparto [ ] o38122f2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k brooks [img] o38122f2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 15.4m brooks [ ] o38122f3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k walter springs [img] o38122f3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 15.9m walter springs [ ] o38122f4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k aetna springs [img] o38122f4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 14.6m aetna springs [ ] o38122f5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k detert reservoir [img] o38122f5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 14.6m detert reservoir [ ] o38122f6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k mount saint helena [img] o38122f6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 13.9m mount saint helena [ ] o38122f7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k jimtown [img] o38122f7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 14.9m jimtown [ ] o38122f8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k geyserville [img] o38122f8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 14.2m geyserville [ ] o38122g1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k bird valley [img] o38122g1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 9.3m bird valley [ ] o38122g2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k guinda [img] o38122g2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 13.3m guinda [ ] o38122g3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k knoxville [img] o38122g3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 19.5m knoxville [ ] o38122g4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k jericho valley [img] o38122g4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 15.2m jericho valley [ ] o38122g5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k middletown [img] o38122g5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 12.4m middletown [ ] o38122g6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k whispering pines [img] o38122g6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 16.9m whispering pines [ ] o38122g7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k the geysers [img] o38122g7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 20.5m the geysers [ ] o38122g8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k asti [img] o38122g8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 15.4m asti [ ] o38122h1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k wildwood school [img] o38122h1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 9.6m wildwood school [ ] o38122h2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k rumsey [img] o38122h2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 15.8m rumsey [ ] o38122h3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:54 1k glascock mtn [img] o38122h3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 20.7m glascock mtn [ ] o38122h4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:54 1k wilson valley [img] o38122h4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 18.6m wilson valley [ ] o38122h5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:54 1k lower lake [img] o38122h5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 16.2m lower lake [ ] o38122h6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:54 1k clearlake highlands [img] o38122h6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 13.5m clearlake highlands [ ] o38122h7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:54 1k kelseyville [img] o38122h7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 16.3m kelseyville [ ] o38122h8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:54 1k highland springs [img] o38122h8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 16.5m highland springs

' b' function popdisclaimer() { w = window.open("","disclaimer","width=600,height=400,status=yes,resizable=yes,scrollbars=yes"); w.location = "http://gis.ca.gov/popdisclaimer.epl"; the california spatial information library return; } function popsurvey() { w = window.open("","survey","width=600,height=400,status=yes,resizable=yes,scrollbars=yes"); w.location = "http://gis.ca.gov/popsurvey.epl"; return; } california home to see today's date, please enable javascript.... casil home statewide data index planned/proposed data spot data drg data doq data cmcc disclaimer partners & links interactive mapping news & events other information survey related links california gis council ceres usgs fgdc enviromental information catalog my ca this site california digital raster graphics, 7.5 minute (o) series this directory contains the 7.5 minute (o) series, albers nad27 untrimmed, digital raster graphics (drgs) for california, for usgs block identifier 38122. all images contained within this directory are reprojected to the albers equal area projection. please refer to casil projection information for detailed projection information. for web users, you can click on the image below to retrieve the geotiff file that corresponds to the selected point. position your mouse cursor above the point of interest for a tooltip that identifies the geotiff file you will obtain. back to top of page © 2000 state of california. arnold schwarzenegger, governor. the content found herein may not necessarily represent the views and opinions of the schwarzenegger administration. privacy policy e-mail the webmaster name last modified size description parent directory 26-nov-2003 15:58 - readme 21-mar-2003 16:51 1k readme.html 26-nov-2003 15:58 69k o38122a1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k vine hill o38122a1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 10.3m vine hill o38122a2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k benicia o38122a2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 20.1m benicia o38122a3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k mare island o38122a3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 6.8m mare island o38122a4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k petaluma point o38122a4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 4.9m petaluma point o38122a5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k novato o38122a5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 17.0m novato o38122a6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k san geronimo o38122a6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 13.8m san geronimo o38122a7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k inverness o38122a7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 12.1m inverness o38122a8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k drakes bay o38122a8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 9.9m drakes bay o38122b1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k fairfield south o38122b1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:48 11.8m fairfield south o38122b2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:48 1k cordelia o38122b2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 19.1m cordelia o38122b3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k cuttings wharf o38122b3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 15.6m cuttings wharf o38122b4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k sears point o38122b4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 10.9m sears point o38122b5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k petaluma river o38122b5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 10.4m petaluma river o38122b6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k petaluma o38122b6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 11.3m petaluma o38122b7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k point reyes ne o38122b7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 11.6m point reyes ne o38122b8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k tomales o38122b8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 8.0m tomales o38122c1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k fairfield north o38122c1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 21.6m fairfield north o38122c2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k mt george o38122c2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 22.5m mt george o38122c3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k napa o38122c3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:49 16.3m napa o38122c4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:49 1k sonoma o38122c4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 19.4m sonoma o38122c5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k glen ellen o38122c5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 12.6m glen ellen o38122c6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k cotati o38122c6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 10.4m cotati o38122c7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k two rock o38122c7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 10.3m two rock o38122c8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k valley ford o38122c8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 14.4m valley ford o38122d1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k mt vaca o38122d1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 29.0m mt vaca o38122d2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k capell valley o38122d2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 30.3m capell valley o38122d3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k yountville o38122d3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 22.6m yountville o38122d4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k rutherford o38122d4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 23.4m rutherford o38122d5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k kenwood o38122d5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:50 15.7m kenwood o38122d6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:50 1k santa rosa o38122d6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 16.2m santa rosa o38122d7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k sebastopol o38122d7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 12.5m sebastopol o38122d8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k camp meeker o38122d8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 14.4m camp meeker o38122e1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k monticello dam o38122e1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 14.2m monticello dam o38122e2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k lake berryessa o38122e2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 15.0m lake berryessa o38122e3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k chiles valley o38122e3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 17.4m chiles valley o38122e4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k saint helena o38122e4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 15.2m saint helena o38122e5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k calistoga o38122e5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 18.2m calistoga o38122e6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k mark west springs o38122e6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:51 15.7m mark west springs o38122e7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:51 1k healdsburg o38122e7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 17.4m healdsburg o38122e8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k guerneville o38122e8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 18.8m guerneville o38122f1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k esparto o38122f1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 9.5m esparto o38122f2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k brooks o38122f2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 15.4m brooks o38122f3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k walter springs o38122f3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 15.9m walter springs o38122f4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k aetna springs o38122f4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 14.6m aetna springs o38122f5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k detert reservoir o38122f5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 14.6m detert reservoir o38122f6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k mount saint helena o38122f6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 13.9m mount saint helena o38122f7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k jimtown o38122f7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 14.9m jimtown o38122f8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k geyserville o38122f8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 14.2m geyserville o38122g1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k bird valley o38122g1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:52 9.3m bird valley o38122g2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:52 1k guinda o38122g2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 13.3m guinda o38122g3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k knoxville o38122g3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 19.5m knoxville o38122g4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k jericho valley o38122g4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 15.2m jericho valley o38122g5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k middletown o38122g5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 12.4m middletown o38122g6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k whispering pines o38122g6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 16.9m whispering pines o38122g7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k the geysers o38122g7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 20.5m the geysers o38122g8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k asti o38122g8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 15.4m asti o38122h1.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k wildwood school o38122h1.tif 11-feb-2003 17:53 9.6m wildwood school o38122h2.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:53 1k rumsey o38122h2.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 15.8m rumsey o38122h3.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:54 1k glascock mtn o38122h3.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 20.7m glascock mtn o38122h4.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:54 1k wilson valley o38122h4.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 18.6m wilson valley o38122h5.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:54 1k lower lake o38122h5.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 16.2m lower lake o38122h6.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:54 1k clearlake highlands o38122h6.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 13.5m clearlake highlands o38122h7.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:54 1k kelseyville o38122h7.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 16.3m kelseyville o38122h8.tfw 11-feb-2003 17:54 1k highland springs readme.png 21-mar-2003 16:51 52k o38122h8.tif 11-feb-2003 17:54 16.5m highland springs ' ' 8c34d3a7f775 b' state of alaska, alaska coastal management program  
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you will find detailed information on each coastal district including links to each district's coastal plan enforceable polices in the adobe acrobat pdf format.
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yakutatskagwayhainesjuneauhoonahpelicansitkaangoonkakepetersburgwrangellthorne bayklawockcraighydaburgketchikan gateway borough ' b" state of alaska, alaska coastal management program opmp alaska coast online explore alaska to alaska's southeast coast. this coast is divided up into 16 coastal districts. click the yellow dots on the map or choose a district welcome in the box below to learn more about alaska's unique coast. list of southeast local government coastal coordinators links to all coastal district enforceable policies including links to each district's coastal plan enforceable polices in you will find detailed information on each coastal district the adobe acrobat pdf format. angoon craig haines hoonah hydaburg juneau kake ketchikan gateway borough klawock pelican petersburg sitka skagway thorne bay wrangell yakutat last modified april 28, 2003. acmp webmaster ' " 2bff774c4287 b' eating disorders awareness week, featured pubs - february 2002, national mental health information center
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eating disorders awareness week
february 24 - march 3, 2002

eating disorders awareness week

  • publications
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    featured publications

    cmhs: eating disorders
    most of us want to trim off a few unwanted pounds at some point in our lives. and when we shed them, we are satisfied. but for some people, losing weight or keeping weight off becomes an obsession that can lead to irreversible health damage, such as stunted growth, thinning bones, infertility, injury to teeth and internal organs, and even to death.
    publication number: ken-98-0047

    nimh: facts about eating disorders and the search for solutions
    eating disorders involve serious disturbances in eating behavior, such as extreme and unhealthy reduction of food intake or severe overeating, as well as feelings of distress or extreme concern about body shape or weight. this publication introduces the most common eating disorders and treatment strategies.

    niddk: binge eating disorders
    get the facts on what causes binge eating disorders, the complications, and how people with binge eating disorders can be helped.

    nwhic: eating disorders
    each year, millions of people in the united states are affected by serious and sometimes life-threatening eating disorders. the vast majority -- more than 90 percent -- of those afflicted with eating disorders are adolescent and young adult women. one reason that women in this age group are particularly vulnerable to eating disorders is their tendency to go on strict diets to achieve an "ideal" figure.

    nlm: bulimia
    this fact sheet is taken from the medical encyclopedia, a service of the u.s. national library of medicine. provides information on the definition of bulimia, causes and risks association with the eating disorder, treatment, and more.

    apa: eating disorders: psychotherapy's role in effective treatment
    people with eating disorders take such concerns to extremes, developing abnormal eating habits that threaten their well-being and even their lives. this question-and-answer fact sheet explains how psychotherapy can help people recover from these increasingly common disorders.

    nami: anorexia nervosa
    anorexia nervosa is a life-threatening eating disorder defined by a refusal to maintain body weight within 15 percent of an individual's minimal normal weight.

    kids health: information for parents on eating disorders
    recently, you've noticed your 15-year-old daughter just picking at her food. although you want to just pass it off as a stage of adolescence, you are worried.



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    united states department of health and human services substance abuse and mental health services administration samhsa's hhs logo national mental health information center - center for mental health services ' b' eating disorders awareness week, featured pubs - february 2002, national mental health information center /* milonic dhtml website navigation menu written by andy woolley copyright 2002 (c) milonic solutions ltd. all rights reserved. plase vist http://www.milonic.co.uk/menu/ or e-mail menu3@milonic.com place prominent links to http://www.milonic.co.uk/menu and you inform us of your intentions with your url and all copyright notices remain you may use this menu on your web site free of charge as long as you in place in all files including your home page. comercial support contracts are available on request if you cannot comply with the above rules. */ var url = location.href; // url you wish to have bookmarked var who = document.title; // caption to appear with bookmark function bookmarkit() { var ver = navigator.appname var num = parseint(navigator.appversion) if ((ver == "microsoft internet explorer")&&(num >= 4)) { window.external.addfavorite(url,who); }else{ alert("sorry, the bookmark feature is only available in modern browsers."); } } choose where to search ..................this site mental health at hhs 15+ children's mental health consumer/survivor national strategy for suicide prevention school violence prevention managing anxiety surgeon general's reports president's new freedom commission on mental health what's new mental health at the department of health and human services funding information calendar of events mental health links mental health dictionary printer friendly page e-mail this page bookmark this page shopping cart espanol current or new account eating disorders awareness week february 24 - march 3, 2002 publications related topics related links homepage featured publications cmhs: eating disorders most of us want to trim off a few unwanted pounds at some point in our lives. and when we shed them, we are satisfied. but for some people, losing weight or keeping weight off becomes an obsession that can lead to irreversible health damage, such as stunted growth, thinning bones, infertility, injury to teeth and internal organs, and even to death. publication number: ken-98-0047 nimh: facts about eating disorders and the search for solutions eating disorders involve serious disturbances in eating behavior, such as extreme and unhealthy reduction of food intake or severe overeating, as well as feelings of distress or extreme concern about body shape or weight. this publication introduces the most common eating disorders and treatment strategies. niddk: binge eating disorders get the facts on what causes binge eating disorders, the complications, and how people with binge eating disorders can be helped. nwhic: eating disorders each year, millions of people in the united states are affected by serious and sometimes life-threatening eating disorders. the vast majority -- more than 90 percent -- of those afflicted with eating disorders are adolescent and young adult women. one reason that women in this age group are particularly vulnerable to eating disorders is their tendency to go on strict diets to achieve an "ideal" figure. nlm: bulimia this fact sheet is taken from the medical encyclopedia, a service of the u.s. national library of medicine. provides information on the definition of bulimia, causes and risks association with the eating disorder, treatment, and more. apa: eating disorders: psychotherapy's role in effective treatment people with eating disorders take such concerns to extremes, developing abnormal eating habits that threaten their well-being and even their lives. this question-and-answer fact sheet explains how psychotherapy can help people recover from these increasingly common disorders. nami: anorexia nervosa anorexia nervosa is a life-threatening eating disorder defined by a refusal to maintain body weight within 15 percent of an individual's minimal normal weight. kids health: information for parents on eating disorders recently, you've noticed your 15-year-old daughter just picking at her food. although you want to just pass it off as a stage of adolescence, you are worried. highlight archives home contact us about us awards privacy and disclaimer statement site map ' ' 1473bc3ea110 b' urban transportation planning in the us - a historical overview/nov 1992

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    urban transportation planning in the us - a historical overview/nov 1992



     . urban transportation planning in the united states an historical overview revised edition november 1992 prepared by edward weiner office of economics office of the assistant secretary for policy and international affairs office of the secretary of transportation washington, d.c. 20590 distributed in cooperation with technology sharing program u.s. department of transportation washington, d.c. 20590 dot-t-93-02 preface urban transportation planning is carried out primarily by state and local agencies. over the years, much experience has been gained in the planning and evaluation of urban transportation systems. this knowledge can be useful to planners and decision makers in the development and implementation of transportation system changes. in this context, it is important to understand the transportation and planning options which have been tried, and how they developed into the approaches we have today. this report describes the evolution of urban transportation planning over the last sixty years. this is the fourth edition of this report which was first published in 1983. the earlier edition discussed urban transportation planning to mid-1986. this edition updates the evolution of urban transportation planning and policy to mid-1992. it also contains many additions and some revisions to the earlier edition. this report is an updated version of "evolution of urban transportation planning" which was published in 1979 as chapter 15 in public transportation: planning, operations and management., edited by george e. gray and lester l. hoel. the report focuses on key events in the evolution of urban transportation planning including developments in technical procedures, philosophy, processes and institutions. but, planners must also be aware of changes in legislation, policy, regulations and technology. these events have been included to provide a more complete picture of the forces that have affected and often continue to affect urban transportation planning. summarizing so much history in a single report requires difficult choices. the efforts of many individuals and groups made important contributions to the development of urban i transportation planning. clearly, not all of these contributions could be included or cited. this report concentrates on the key events of national significance and thereby tries to capture the overall evolution of urban transportation planning. focusing on key events also serves as a convenient point to discuss developments in a particular area. the report is generally arranged chronologically. each period is titled with the major theme pervading that period as viewed by the author. not all key events fit precisely under a particular theme, but many do. the discussion of the background for some events or the follow-on activities for others may cover more than one time period and is placed where it seemed most relevant. the report takes a multimodal perspective and attempts to provide a balanced view among a number of subject areas including: significant federal legislation major, relevant federal regulations and policies highway concerns transit concerns environmental issues energy issues safety issues relevant conferences technological developments transportation service alternatives manuals and methodological developments national transportation studies national data resources local events with national significance over the years, the author has discussed these events with many persons in the profession. often they had participated in or had first hand knowledge of the events. the author appreciates their ii assistance, even though they are too numerous to mention specifically. in preparing this report, the author was directly aided by several individuals who provided information on specific events. their assistance is appreciated: barry berlin, susan binder, norman cooper, frederick w. ducca, christopher r. fleet, charles a. hedges, anthony r. kane, thomas koslowski, ira laster, james j. mcdonnell, florence miller, camille c. mittelholtz, norman paulhus, elizabeth a. parker, john peak, sam rea, carl rappaport, james a. scott, mary lynn tischer, jimmy yu, and samuel zimmerman. the author appreciates the review comments provided by: donald emerson, david s. gendell, james getzewich, charles h. graves, thomas j. hillegass, howard s. lapin, herbert s. levinson, alfonso b. linhares, gary e. maring, ali f. sevin, gordon shunk, peter r. stopher, carl n. swerdloff, paul l. verchinski, and george wickstrom. any errors of fact or interpretation are the responsibility of the author. edward weiner washington, dc november, 1992 table of contents preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i 1. introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2. early highway planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 need for highway planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 federal-aid highway act of 1934. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 electric railway presidents' conference committee. . . . . .12 manual on uniform traffic control devices. . . . . . . . . .13 aasho policy on geometric design of rural highways . . . . .14 toll road study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 highway capacity manual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 interregional highway report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 3. beginnings of urban transportation planning19 federal-aid highway act of 1944. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 early urban travel surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 early transit planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 dawn of analytical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 aasho manual on user benefit analysis. . . . . . . . . . . .27 breakthroughs in analytical techniques . . . . . . . . . . .28 national committee on urban transportation . . . . . . . . .31 housing act of 1954. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 pioneering urban transportation studies. . . . . . . . . . .32 federal-aid highway act of 1956. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 sagamore conference on highways and urban development. . . .36 housing act of 1961. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 v 4. urban transportation planning comes of age . . . . . . . . .39 joint report on urban mass transportation. . . . . . . . . .39 president kennedy's transportation message . . . . . . . . .41 federal-aid highway act of 1962. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 hershey conference on urban freeways . . . . . . . . . . . .43 implementation of the 1962 federal-aid highway act . . . . .44 conventional urban travel forecasting process. . . . . . . .47 southeastern wisconsin regional planning commission. . . . .50 highway planning program manual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 urban mass transportation act of 1964. . . . . . . . . . . .54 urban development simulation models. . . . . . . . . . . . .55 williamsburg conference on highways and urban development. .56 5. improved intergovernmental coordination. . . . . . . . . . .59 housing and urban development act of 1965. . . . . . . . . .60 1966 amendments to the urban mass transportation act . . . .60 highway and motor vehicle safety acts of 1966. . . . . . . .61 department of transportation act of 1966 . . . . . . . . . .63 national historic preservation act of 1966 . . . . . . . . .64 demonstration cities and metropolitan development act of 1966 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 dartmouth conference on urban development models . . . . . .66 reserved bus lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 national highway needs studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 federal-aid highway act of 1968. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 "continuing" urban transportation planning . . . . . . . . .75 intergovernmental cooperation act of 1968. . . . . . . . . .77 bureau of the budget's circular no. a-95 . . . . . . . . . .77 6.environment and citizen involvement81 citizen participation and the two-hearing process for highways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 vi national environmental policy act of 1969. . . . . . . . . .82 environmental quality improvement act of 1970. . . . . . . .83 nationwide personal transportation study . . . . . . . . . .84 clean air act amendments of 1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85 boston transportation planning review. . . . . . . . . . . .87 urban corridor demonstration program . . . . . . . . . . . .89 census journey-to-work surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 7. beginnings of multimodal urban transportation planning . . .95 urban mass transportation assistance act of 1970 . . . . . .97 federal-aid highway act of 1970. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 conference on urban commodity flow . . . . . . . . . . . . .99 mt. pocono conference on urban transportation planning . . 101 dot initiatives toward planning unification. . . . . . . . 102 process guidelines for highway projects. . . . . . . . . . 103 umta's external operating manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 williamsburg conference on urban travel forecasting. . . . 106 federal-aid highway act of 1973. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 endangered species act of 1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 aashto policy on geometric design of urban highways. . . . 110 1972 and 1974 national transportation studies. . . . . . . 111 national mass transportation assistance act of 1974. . . . 113 planpac and utps batteries of computer programs. . . . . . 114 8. transition to short-term planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 emergency energy legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 service and methods demonstration program. . . . . . . . . 119 ota's report on automated guideway transit . . . . . . . . 120 model 13(c) labor protection agreement for operating assistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 joint highway-transit planning regulations . . . . . . . . 124 policy on major urban mass transportation investments. . . 128 characteristics of urban transportation systems. . . . . . 130 vii light rail transit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 federal-aid highway act of 1976. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 ite trip generation report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 urban system study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 road pricing demonstration program . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 national transportation trends and choices . . . . . . . . 138 transit uniform system of accounts and records . . . . . . 139 clean air act amendments of 1977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 9. economic revitalization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 1978 national urban policy report. . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 surface transportation assistance act of 1978. . . . . . . 148 quick response urban travel forecasting techniques . . . . 150 national energy act of 1978. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 council on environmental quality's regulations . . . . . . 153 bart impact program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 international conferences on behavioral travel demand. . . 158 national ridesharing demonstration program . . . . . . . . 161 urban initiatives program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 section 504 regulations on accessibility for the handicapped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 national transportation policy study commission. . . . . . 166 aspen conference on future urban transportation. . . . . . 167 highway performance monitoring system. . . . . . . . . . . 169 10. decentralization of decisionmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 president reagan's memorandum on regulations . . . . . . . 171 airlie house conference on urban transportation planning in the 1980's . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 federal-aid highway act of 1981. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 e.o. 12372, intergovernmental review of federal programs. 174 woods hole conference on future directions of urban public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 viii easton conference on travel analysis methods for the 1980's. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 surface transportation assistance act of 1982. . . . . . . 179 advent of microcomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 new urban transportation planning regulations. . . . . . . 184 11. private sector participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 paratransit policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 conferences on goods transportation in urban areas . . . . 189 transportation management associations . . . . . . . . . . 190 revised major transit capital investment policy. . . . . . 191 private participation in the transit program . . . . . . . 195 national transit performance reports . . . . . . . . . . . 196 charter bus regulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 surface transportation and uniform relocation assistance act of 1987. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 national conference on transportation planning applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 smuggler's notch conference on highway finance . . . . . . 208 revised fhwa/umta environmental regulation . . . . . . . . 209 national council on public works improvement . . . . . . . 210 12. strategic planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 transportation 2020. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 williamsburg conference on transportation and economic development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 national transportation strategic planning study. . . 217 intelligent vehicle highway systems. . . . . . . . . . . . 220 geographic information systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 transportation demand management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 national maglev initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 clean air act amendments of 1990. . . . . . . . . . . 229 strategic planning and management. . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 ix americans with disabilities act . . . . . . . . . . . 238 intermodal surface transportation efficiency act of 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 13. concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 appendices references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 list of abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 chapter 1 introduction almost thirty years have passed since the federal-aid highway act of 1962 created the federal mandate for urban transportation planning in the united states. the act was the capstone of two decades of experimentation and development of urban transportation procedures and institutions. it was passed at a time in which urban areas were beginning to plan interstate highway routes through and around their areas. the 1962 act combined with the incentive of 90 percent federal funding for interstate highway projects caused urban transportation planning to spread quickly throughout the united states. it also had a significant influence on urban transportation planning in other parts of the world. in some ways, the urban transportation planning process and planning techniques have changed little over the thirty years. yet, in other ways, urban transportation has evolved over these years in response to changing issues, conditions and values, and a greater understanding of urban transportation phenomena. current urban transportation planning practice is considerably more sophisticated, complex, and costly than its highway planning predecessor. modifications in the planning process took many years to evolve. as new concerns and issues arose, changes in planning techniques and processes were introduced. these modifications sought to make the planning process more responsive and sensitive to those areas of concern. urban areas that had the resources and technical ability were the first to develop new concepts and techniques. these new ideas were diffused by various means throughout the nation, usually with the assistance of the federal government. the rate at which the new concepts were accepted varied from area 1 to area. consequently, the quality and depth of planning is highly variable at any point in time. early highway planning concentrated on developing a network of all weather highways and with connecting the various portions of the nation. as this work was being accomplished, the problems of serving increasing traffic grew. with the planning for urban areas came additional problems of land development, dislocation of homes and businesses, environmental degradation, citizen participation, energy consumption, and social concerns such as providing transportation for the disadvantaged. more recently have been the concerns about deterioration of the transportation infrastructure and traffic congestion. urban transportation planning in the united states has always been conducted by state and local agencies. this is entirely appropriate since highway and transit facilities and services are owned and operated largely by the states and local agencies. the role of the federal government has been to set national policy, provide financial aid, supply technical assistance and training, and conduct research. over the years, the federal government has attached requirements to its financial assistance. from a planning perspective, the most important has been the requirement that transportation projects in urbanized areas of 50,000 or more in population be based on an urban transportation planning process. this requirement was first incorporated into the federal-aid highway act of 1962. other requirements have been incorporated into federal legislation and regulations over the years. many of these are chronicled in this report. at times these requirements have been very exacting in their detail. at, other times, greater flexibility was allowed in responding to the requirements. currently, there is underway a devolution of federal involvement in and requirements on local planning and decisionmaking processes. greater emphasis is being 2 placed as well on involving the private sector in providing and financing urban transportation facilities and services. over the years, a number of federal agencies have affected urban transportation planning. (table 1 ) the u.s. bureau of public roads (bpr) was part of the u.s. department of commerce when the 1962 highway act was passed. it became part of the u.s. department of transportation (dot) upon its creation in 1966 and its name was changed to the u.s. federal highway administration (fhwa). the federal urban mass transportation program began in 1961 under the u.s. housing and home finance administration, which became the u.s. department of housing and urban development in 1965. the federal urban transit program was transferred to dot in 1968 as the u.s. urban mass transportation administration (umta). the name was changed to the u.s. federal transit administration (fta) by the federal transit act amendments of 1991. the u.s. federal railroad administration (fra) was created at the same time as dot. the national traffic and motor vehicle safety act of 1966 established the national traffic safety agency, and the highway safety act of 1966 established the national highway safety agency both in the department of commerce. the two safety agencies were combined by executive order 11357 in 1967 into the national highway safety bureau in the newly created dot. in 1970 it became the national highway traffic safety administration (nhtsa). other federal agencies became involved in urban transportation planning as new issues arose. the advisory council on historic preservation was established in 1966 to administer national historic preservation programs. the bureau of the budget (bob), later to become the office of management and budget (omb), issued guidance in 1969 to improve coordination among programs funded by the federal government. to address environmental concerns that were increasing in the latter part of the 1960's, the council on environmental quality (ceq) was created in 1969 and the u.s. environmental protection agency (epa) in 1970. the u.s. 3 table 1 dates selected federal agencies were established 1849 department of interior 1913 department of commerce 1916 bureau of public roads 1921 bureau of the budget 1947 housing and home finance agency 1953 department of health, education and welfare 1965 department of housing and urban development 1966 department of transportation 1966 federal highway administration 1966 federal railroad administration 1966 advisory council on historic preservation 1967 national highway safety bureau 1968 urban mass transportation administration 1969 council on environmental quality 1970 national highway traffic safety administration 1970 office of management and budget 1970 environmental protection agency 1977 department of energy 1979 department of health and human services 1991 federal transit administration 4 department of health, education and welfare (hew), now the u.s. department of health and human services (hhs), became involved in urban transportation in 1973 as part of its function to eliminate discrimination against handicapped persons in federal programs. with the passage if the endangered species act of 1973, the department of interior and the department of commerce became involved in some aspects of urban transportation planning. in 1977, the u.s. department of energy (doe) was created to bring together federal energy functions. the involvement of these and other agencies at the federal, state and local level created an increasing challenge to agencies conducting urban transportation planning to meet all the requirements that resulted. local planners devoted substantial resources to meeting requirements of higher level governments, which often detracted from their ability to address local needs and objectives. these requirements, however, were also used by local agencies as the justification to carry out activities that they desired but for which they could not obtain support at the local level. this report reviews the historical development of the urban transportation planning process in the united states from its beginnings in early highway and transit planning to its current focus on strategic planning and privatization. chapter 2 discusses the early beginnings of highway planning. chapter 3 covers the formative years of urban transportation planning during which many of the basic concepts were developed. chapter 4 focuses on the 1962 federal-aid highway act and the sweeping changes it brought in urban transportation planning in the united states. it also describes early federal involvement in urban public transportation. 5 chapter 5 discusses efforts at intergovernmental coordination, the beginning of the federal highway and vehicle safety programs, a deeper federal role in urban public transportation and the evolution to "continuing" transportation planning. chapter 6 describes the environmental revolution of the late 1960's and the increased involvement of citizens in the urban transportation planning process. chapter 7 addresses the events that led to integrated planning for urban public transportation and highways. these included major increases in federal transit programs as well as increased flexibility in the use of highway funds. chapter 8 focuses on the arab oil embargo of 1973 which accelerated the transition from long-term system planning to short-term, smaller scale planning. it also discusses the concern for cost- effectiveness in transportation decisions and the emphasis on transportation system management techniques. chapter 9 highlights the concern for the revitalization of older urban centers and the growing need for energy conservation. it describes the expanding federal requirements on environmental quality and transportation for special groups. chapter 10 describes the efforts to reverse federal intrusion into local decisions and to scale back federal requirements. chapter 11 discusses the expanded interest in involving the private sector in the provision of transportation services and the decline in public resources to address transportation planning. chapter 12 focuses on strategic planning to the year 2000 and into the next century, and the renewed interest in new technological options. it also discusses the growing concern for traffic 6 congestion and air pollution and the efforts at transportation demand management. chapter 13 provides a summary and concluding remarks. 7 chapter 2 early highway planning early highway planning grew out the need for information on the rising tide of automobile and truck usage during the first quarter of the twentieth century. from 190.4, when the first automobiles ventured out of the cities, traffic grew at a steady and rapid rate. after the initial period of highway construction which connected many of the nation's cities, emphasis shifted to improving the highway system to carry these increased traffic loads. early highway planning focused on the collection and analysis of factual information and, on applying that information to the growing highway problems in the period prior to world war ii. need for highway planning in the early years of highway construction, the automobile had been regarded as a pleasure vehicle rather than an important means of transportation. consequently, highways consisted of comparatively short sections that were built from the cities into the countryside. there were significant gaps in many important intercity routes. during this period, urban roads were considered to be adequate, particularly in comparison to rural roads which were generally not paved. as the automobile was improved and ownership became more widespread, the idea of a highway network gained in strength. the concept of a continuous national system of highways was recognized in the federal-aid highway act of 1925 with the adoption of a united states numbered highway system composed of important through routes extending entirely across the nation. this was not a formal highway system but simply a basis for route marking as a 9 guide for motorists (holmes and lynch, 1957). with the adoption of a federal-aid system, in the federal-aid act of 1921, and the marking of through routes, the focus of highway construction was on "closing the gaps." by the early 1930's, the objective of constructing a system of two-lane roads connecting the centers of population had largely been completed. it was then possible to travel around the country on a smooth, all-weather highway system (u.s. federal works agency, 1949). with the completion of this "pioneering period" of highway construction, attention shifted to the more complex issues resulting from the rapid growth in traffic and increasing vehicle weights. figure 1 shows the growth in vehicle registrations, motor fuel consumption, highway expenditures and tax receipts during the period (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1954). early highways were inadequate in width, grade and alignment to serve major traffic loads, and highway pavements had not been designed to carry the numbers and weights of the newer trucks. it became clear that these growing problems necessitated the collection and analysis of information on highways and their use on a more comprehensive scale than had ever before been attempted (holmes and lynch, 1957). a systematic approach to the planning of highways was needed to respond to these problems. federal-aid highway act of 1934 beginning with the federal-aid highway act of 1934, the congress authorized that 1-1/2 percent of the amount apportioned to any state annually for construction could be used for surveys, plans, engineering, and economic analyses for future highway construction projects. the act created the cooperative arrangement between the u.s. bureau of public roads (now the u.s. federal highway administration) and the state highway departments, known as the 10 click here for graphic. 11 statewide highway planning surveys. by 1940, all states were participating in this program (holmes and lynch, 1957). as an initial activity, these highway planning surveys included a complete inventory and mapping of the highway system and its physical characteristics. traffic surveys were undertaken to determine the volume of traffic by vehicle type, weight, and dimensions. financial studies were made to determine the relationship of highway finances to other financial operations within each state, to assess the ability of the states to finance the construction and operation of the highway system, and to indicate how to allocate highway taxes among the users. many of the same types of activities are still being performed on a continuing basis by highway agencies (holmes, 1962). electric railway presidents, conference committee electric railway systems were the backbone of urban mass transportation by world war i with over 1,000 street railway companies carrying some 11 billion passengers by 1917 (mills, 1975). after 1923, ridership on the nation's electric railways began to decline as the motor bus, with its flexibility to change routes and lower capital costs, quickly began replacing the electric the electric streetcar (n.d. lea transportation research corporation, 1975). with rising costs and the inability to raise fares to cover costs, the financial condition of street railway companies worsened. in 1930, the heads of 25 electric railway companies formed electric railway presidents' conference committee (pcc). the goal of the pcc was to develop a modern streetcar to match the comfort, performance, and modern image of its competitors, and stem the decline of the street railway industry. the effort took five years and $750,000. it was one of the most thorough and efficiently organized ventures in urban mass transit. the 12 product, known as the "pcc car," far surpassed its predecessors in acceleration, braking, passenger comfort, and noise (mills, 1975). the first commercial application of the pcc car was in 1935 in brooklyn, new york. by 1940 more than 1100 vehicles had been purchased. by 1952, when production was first halted, about 6,000 pcc cars had been produced. the pcc cars did improve the competitive position of streetcars and slow the conversion to buses. but without other improvements, such as exclusive rights of way, it could not stop the long term decline in street railways. by 1960, streetcars remained in only about a dozen cities in the u.s. (vuchic, 1981). manual on uniform traffic control devices as the highway system was expanded and upgraded to meet the growth in automobile traffic, the need for high uniform standards for traffic control devices became obvious. these traffic control devices included signs, traffic signals, markings and other devices placed on, over, or adjacent to a street or highway by a public body to guide, warn, or regulate traffic. in 1927, the american association of state highway officials published the manual and specifications for the manufacture, display and erection of u.s. standard road markers and signs. the manual was developed for application of rural highways. then, in 1929, the national conference of street and highway safety published a manual for use on urban streets. but the necessity for unification of the standards applicable to different classes of road and street systems was obvious. to meet that need, a joint committee of the aasho and the national conference of street and highway safety combined their efforts and developed the first manual on uniform traffic control devices which was published by the bpr in 1935. 13 over the years since that first manual, the problems and needs of traffic control changed. new solutions and devices were developed, as well as the standards to guide their application. the original joint committee continued its existence with occasional changes in organization and personnel. in 1972, the committee formally became the national advisory committee on uniform traffic control devices to the fhwa. the committee has been responsible for periodic revisions to update and expand the manual in 1942, 1948, 1961, 1971, 1978 and 1988 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1978b; upchurch, 1989). aasho policy on geometric design of rural highways as new knowledge became available on the performance of vehicles and highway design features, there was a need to incorporate it into practice. the committee on planning and design policies of the american association of state highway officials (aasho) was formed in 1937 for this purpose. the committee's mode of operation was to outline a program of work which was performed by the bpr under the supervision of the committee secretary. the bpr gathered known information and developed draft guidance, known a policies, which were revised by the committee. the policies were finally approved by a two-thirds favorable vote of the states. in the period 1938 to 1944 the committee under secretary joseph barnett produced seven policies related to highway classification, highway types, sight distance, signing, and intersection design for at-grade, rotaries and grade separations. these policies were reprinted without change and bound as a single volume in 1950 (american association of state highway officials, 1950). the policies were updated, expanded and rewritten as a single cohesive document and issued as a policy on geometric design of rural highways in 1954 (american association of state highway officials, 1954). the policy contained design guidance on the 14 criteria determining highway design, vertical and horizontal alignment, cross section elements, at-grade and grade intersections, and interchanges. the volume, which became known as the "blue book," went through seven printings by 1965. it received wide acceptance as the standard guide for highway design. the policy was again reissued in 1966 in revised and updated form to reflect more current information (american association of state highway officials, 1966). much of the material in the 1954 rural policy applied both to urban and rural highways. as new data and research results became available on urban highways, the aasho committee decided to issued a separate policy for the geometric design of urban highways (american association of state highway officials, 1957). the development of these policies typified the approach to highways standards. research engineers collected data on the performance of vehicles and highways. these data were brought together in the form of design standards, generally by staff of the bpr under the guidance of the aasho. eventually, they became part of highway design practice through agreement of the states. as a result of their factual basis and adoption through common agreement, the policies had immense influence on the design of highways in the united states and abroad. toll road study by the mid 1930's, there was considerable sentiment for a few long- distance, controlled-access highways connecting major cities. advocates of such a highway system assumed that the public would be willing to finance much of its cost by tolls. the u.s. bureau of public roads was requested by president roosevelt in 1937 to study the idea, and two years later it published the report, toll roads and free roads (u.s. congress, 1939). 15 the study recommended the construction of a highway system to be comprised of direct, interregional highways with all necessary connections through and around cities. it concluded that this nationwide highway system could not be financed solely through tolls, even though certain sections could. it also recommended the creation of a federal land authority empowered to acquire, hold, sell, and lease land. the report emphasized the problem of transportation within major cities and used the city of baltimore as an example (holmes, 1973). highway capacity manual during the 1920's and early 1930's, a number of studies were conducted to determine the capacity of highways to carry traffic. early efforts were theoretical but, gradually, fields studies using observers, cameras and aerial surveys created a body of empirical data on which to base capacity estimates. by 1934, it was clear that a coordinated effort was needed to integrate the results of the various studies and to collect and analyze additional data. the bpr launched such an effort from 1934 to 1937 to collect a large quantity of data on a wide variety of roads under different conditions (cron, 1975a). in 1944, the highway research board organized a committee on highway capacity to coordinate the work in this field. its chairman, o.k. normann, was the foremost researcher on highway capacity at that time. by 1949, the committee had succeeded in reducing the enormous volume of factual information on highway capacity to a form that would be usable to highway designers and traffic engineers. the results were first published in public roads magazine, and then as a separate volume entitled, the highway capacity manual (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1950). the manual defined capacity, and presented methods for calculating it for various types of highways and elements under different conditions. this manual quickly became the standard for highway 16 design and planning. more than 26,000 copies of the manual were sold, and it was translated into nine other languages. the committee on highway capacity was reactivated in 1953, again with o.k. normann as chairman, to continue the study of highway capacity and prepare a new edition of the manual. much of the work was done by the staff of the bpr. the new manual, which was issued in 1965, placed new emphasis on freeways, ramps, and weaving sections because they had come into widespread use. a chapter on bus transit was also added. other types of highways and streets continued to receive complete coverage. this manual, like its predecessor, was primarily a practical guide. it described methods to estimate capacity, service volume, or level of service for a specific highway design under specific conditions. alternately, the design to carry a given traffic demand could be determined (highway research board, 1965). the third edition the highway capacity manual was published by the transportation research board in 1985. it reflected over two decades of empirical research by a number of research agencies primarily under the sponsorship of the national cooperative highway research program and the fhwa. the procedures and methodologies were divided into three sections on freeways, rural highways, and urban streets with detailed procedures and work sheets. the material in the third edition offered significantly revised procedures in many of the areas, and included entirely new sections on pedestrians and bicycles (transportation research board, 1985c). interregional highway report in april 1941, president roosevelt appointed the national interregional highway committee to investigate the need for a limited system of national highways to improve the facilities available for interregional transportation. the staff work was 17 done by the u.s. public roads administration, which was the name of the bureau of public roads at that time, and in 1944 the findings were published in the report, interregional highways (u.s. congress, 1944). a system of highways, designated as the "national system of interstate and defense highways," was recommended and authorized in the federal-aid highway act of 1944. however, it was not until the federal-aid highway act of 1956 that any significant work on the system began. this study was unique in the annals of transportation planning and the implementation of its findings has had profound effects on american lifestyles and industry. the study brought planners, engineers, and economists together with the highway officials responsible for implementing highway programs. the final route choices were influenced as much by strategic necessity and such factors as population density, concentrations of manufacturing activity, and agricultural production as by existing and future traffic (holmes, 1973). the importance of the system within cities was recognized, but it was not intended that these highways serve urban commuter travel demands in the major cities. as stated in the report, "...it is important, both locally and nationally, to recognize the recommended system ... as that system and those routes which best and most directly join region to region and major city to major city" (u.s. congress, 1944). the report recognized the need to coordinate with other modes of transportation and for cooperation at all levels of government. it reiterated the need for a federal land authority with the power of excess condemnation and similar authorities at the state level. 18 chapter 3 beginnings of urban transportation planning during world war ii, regular highway programs stopped. highway materials and personnel were used to build access roads for war production and military needs. with rationing of gasoline and tires, and no new automobiles being manufactured, the use of transit mushroomed. between 1941 and 1946, transit ridership grew by 65 percent to an all-time high of 23.4 billion trips annually (american public transit association, 1981). (figure 2) when the war came to an end, the pent-up demand for homes and automobiles ushered in the suburban boom era. automobile production jumped from a mere 70,000 in 1945 to 2.1 million in 1946, 3.5 million, and 3.5 million in 1947. highway travel reached its prewar peak by 1946 and began to climb at 6 percent per year that was to continue for decades (dept. of transportation, 1979a). transit use, on the other hand, declined at about the same rate it had increased during the war. by 1953, there were fewer than 14 billion transit trips annually (transportation research board, 1987). the nation's highways were in poor shape to handle this increasing load of traffic. little had been done during the war to improve the highways and wartime traffic had exacerbated their condition. moreover, the growth of development in the suburbs occurred where highways did not have the capacity to carry the resulting traffic. suburban traffic quickly overwhelmed the existing two-lane formerly rural roads (dept. of transportation, 1979a). transit facilities, too, experienced significant wear and tear during the war from extended use and deferred maintenance. this resulted in deterioration in transit's physical plant by war's end. pent-up wage demands of transit employees were met causing nearly a 50 19 click here for graphic. 20 percent in average fares by 1950. this further contributed to a decline in ridership. these factors combined to cause serious financial problems for many transit companies (transportation research board, 1987). the postwar era concentrated on dealing with the problems resulting from suburban growth and resulting from the return to a peacetime economy. many of the planning activities which had to be deferred during the war resumed with renewed vigor. federal-aid highway act of 1944 the federal-aid highway act of 1944 was passed in anticipation of the transition to a postwar economy and to prepare for the expected growth in traffic. the act significantly increased the funds authorized for federal-aid highway programs from $137,500 in 1942 and 1943, no funds in 1944 and 1945, to $500,000 annually for 1946 through 1948. the act also recognized the growing complexity of the highway program. the original 7 percent federal-aid highway program was renamed the federal-aid primary system, and selection by the states of a federal-aid secondary system of farm-to-market and feeder roads was authorized. federal-aid funding was authorized in three parts, known as the "abc" program with 45 percent for the primary system, 30 percent for the secondary system, and 25 percent for urban extensions of the primary and secondary systems. the act continued the allocation of funds by means of formulas. for the primary system, funds were allocated using area, total population, and postal route miles as factors. for the secondary system, the same formula was used except that rural population was substituted for total population. for the urban extensions, urban population was the only factor. for the first time, federal-aid funds up to one-third the cost could be used to 21 acquire right-of-way. a national system of interstate highways of 40,000 miles was authorized. the routes were selected by the states with bpr approval. however, but no special funds were provided to build the system beyond regular federal-aid authorizations. early urban travel surveys most urban areas did not begin urban travel surveys until 1944. it was during that year the federal-aid highway act authorized the expenditure of funds on urban extensions of the federal-aid primary and secondary highway systems. until that time there was a lack of information on urban travel which could be used for the planning of highway facilities. in fact, no comprehensive survey methods had been developed that could provide the required information. because of the complex nature of urban street systems and the shifting of travel from route to route, traffic volumes were not a satisfactory guide to needed improvements. a study of the origins and destinations of trips and the basic factors affecting travel was needed (holmes and lynch, 1957). the method developed to meet this need was the home-interview origin- destination survey. household members were interviewed to obtain information on the number, purpose, mode, origin, and destination of all trips made on a particular day. these urban travel surveys were used in the planning of highway facilities, particularly expressway systems, and in determining design features. the u.s. bureau of public roads published the first, manual of procedures for home interview traffic studies, in 1944 (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1944). figure 3 shows the internal trip report form from a home interview survey. in 1944, the interviewing technique was used in tulsa, little rock, new orleans, kansas city, memphis, savannah, and lincoln. 22 click here for graphic. 23 other elements of the urban transportation planning process were also being developed and applied in pioneering traffic planning studies. new concepts and techniques were being generated and refined in such areas as traffic counting, highway inventories and classification, highway capacity, pavement condition studies, cost estimating and system planning. the first attempt to meld many of these elements into an urban transportation planning process was in the cleveland regional area traffic study in 1927, which was sponsored by the u.s. bureau of public roads. but, even in this study, traffic forecasting was a crude art using basically linear projections (cron, 1975b). in the boston transportation study, a rudimentary form of the gravity model was applied to forecast traffic in 1926 but the technique was not used in other areas. in fact, the 1930's saw little advancement in the techniques of urban transportation planning. it was during this period that the methodology of highway needs and financial studies was developed and expanded (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979a). by the 1940's it was apparent that if certain relationships between land use and travel could be measured, these relationships could be used as a means to project future travel. it remained for the development of the computer, with its ability to process large masses of data from these surveys, to permit estimation of these relationships between travel, land use, and other factors. the first major test using this approach to develop future highway plans was during the early 1950's in san juan, puerto rico, and in detroit (silver and stowers, 1964; detroit metropolitan area traffic study, 1955/6). early transit planning during this period, transit planning was being carried out by operators as part of the regular activities of operating a transit 24 system. federal assistance was not available for planning or construction, and little federal interest existed in transit. however, financial problems increased as transit ridership declined and there were no funds available to rehabilitate facilities and equipment. in some urban areas, transit authorities were created to take over and operate the transit system. the chicago transit authority and the metropolitan transit authority in boston were created in 1947, and the new york city transit authority in 1955. it was at this time that the san francisco bay area began planning for a regional rapid transit system. in 1956, the rapid transit commission proposed a 123 mile system in a five-county area. as a result of this study, the bay area transit district (bartd) was formed within the five counties. bartd completed the planning for the transit system and conducted preliminary engineering and financial studies. in november 1962, the voters approved a bond issue to build a three-county, 75-mile system, totally with local funds (homburger, 1967). dawn of analytical methods prior to the early 1950's, the results of early origin-destination studies were used primarily for describing existing travel patterns, usually in the form of trip origins and destinations and by "desire lines," indicating schematically the major spatial distribution of trips. future urban travel volumes were developed by extending the past traffic growth rate into the future, merely an extrapolation technique. some transportation studies used no projections of any sort and emphasized only the alleviation of existing traffic problems (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1967b). beginning in the early 1950's, new ideas and techniques were being rapidly generated for application in urban transportation planning. in 1950, the highway research board published route 25 selection and traffic assignment (campbell, 1950), which was a compendium of correspondence summarizing practices in identifying traffic desire lines and linking origin-destination pairs. by the mid 1950's, thomas fratar at the cleveland transportation study developed a computer method for distributing future origin- destination travel data using growth factors. in 1956 the eno foundation for highway traffic control published highway traffic estimation (schmidt and campbell, 1956), which documented the state of the art and highlighted the fratar technique. during this period the u.s. bureau of public roads (bpr) sponsored a study on traffic generation at columbia university, which was conducted by robert mitchell and chester rapkin. it was directed at improving the understanding of the relationship between travel and land use through empirical methods and included both persons and goods movement. mitchell and rapkin state as a major premise of their study: "despite the considerable amount of attention given in various countries to movement between place of residence and place of work, the subject has not been given the special emphasis suggested here; that is, to view trips between home and workplace as a "system of movement," changes in which may be related to land use change and to other changes in related systems of urban action or in the social structure" (mitchell and rapkin, 1954, page 65). they demonstrated an early understanding of many of the variables that effect travel patterns and behavior; for example: "systems of round trips from places of residence vary with the sex composition and age of the individual members of the household. the travel patterns of single individuals, young married couples, families with young children, and households consisting of aging persons all show marked differences in travel behavior" (ibid., page 70). 26 they also anticipated the contribution of social science methods to the understanding of travel behavior: "however, inquiry into the motivations of travel and their correspondence with both behavior and the actual events which are consequences of travel would make great contributions to understanding why this behavior occurs, and thus to increase the possibility of predicting behavior" (ibid., page 54). they concluded with a framework for analyzing travel patterns that included developing analytical relationships for land use and travel and then forecasting them as the basis for designing future transportation requirements. aasho manual on user benefit analysis toward the end of the 1940's, the aasho committee on planning and design policies, with the assistance of bpr, undertook the development of generally applicable analytical techniques for performing economic analysis of highway projects. the work grew out of a survey of state highway departments on the use of economic analysis which found a definite lack of similarity in the such procedures and their use (american association of state highway officials, 1960). building upon earlier work on highway economic analysis, the committee developed a manual for conducting benefit - cost analyses (american association of state highway officials, 1952b). the basic tenet of the manual was ... that a profit should be returned on an investment applies as well to highway projects as to general business ventures." unlike previous methods of analysis which only measured construction, right of way, and maintenance costs, the manual included the costs to the user of the highway as a necessary and integral part of the economic analysis. up to the publication, no data existed to perform such 27 an analysis. the manual defined the benefit to cost ratio as the difference in road user costs (between alternate routes) divided by the difference in costs. road user costs included: fuel, other operating costs (i.e. oil, tires, maintenance, depreciation), time value, comfort and convenience, vehicle ownership costs, and safety. the value of time was specified at $1.35 per vehicle hour or $0.75 per person hour. the value of comfort and convenience was included as an increasing cost for greater interference with the trip and varying according to the type of road. it ranged from 0 cents per mile for the best conditions to 1.0 cents per mile for the worst conditions. the manual included tables and charts containing specific values for these components of costs and benefits, and the procedures to conduct benefit - cost analyses. the manual was updated in 1960 with the same analytical methodology but new unit cost data (american association of state highway officials, 1960). a major update of the manual was issued in 1977 after a number of research efforts had been completed on analytical techniques and unit cost data (american association of state highway officials, 1978). the manual was also expanded to address bus transit improvements. the manual recognized that benefit-cost analysis was only an element in the evaluation of transportation projects and that it fit within the larger urban transportation planning process. breakthroughs in analytical techniques the first breakthrough in using an analytical technique for travel forecasting came in 1955 with the publication of a paper entitled, "a general theory of traffic movement," by alan m. voorhees (voorhees, 1956). voorhees advanced the gravity model as the means to link land use with urban traffic flows. research had been proceeding for a number of years on a gravity theory for 28 human interaction. previously, the gravity analogy had been applied by sociologists and geographers to explain population movements. voorhees used origin-destination survey data with driving time as the measure of spatial separation and estimated the exponents for a three-trip purpose gravity model. others conducting similar studies soon corroborated these results (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1963a). another breakthrough soon followed in the area of traffic assignment. the primary difficulty in traffic assignment was evaluating the driver's choice of route between the origin and destination. earl campbell of the highway research board proposed an "s" curve, which related the percent usage of a particular facility to a travel-time ratio. a number of empirical studies were undertaken to evaluate the theory using diversion of traffic to new expressways from arterial streets. from these studies, the american association of state highway officials published a standard traffic diversion curve in, "a basis for estimating traffic diversion to new highways in urban areas," in 1952. (figure 4) however, traffic assignment was still largely a mechanical process requiring judgment (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1964). then in 1957 two papers were presented that discussed a minimum impedance algorithm for networks. one was titled, "the shortest path through a maze," by edward f. moore, and the second was, "the shortest route problem," by george b. danzig. with such an algorithm, travel could then be assigned to minimum time paths using newly developed computers. the staff of the chicago area transportation study under dr. j. douglas carroll, jr. finally developed and refined computer programs that allowed the assignment of traffic for the entire chicago region (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1964). 29 click here for graphic. 30 national committee on urban transportation while highway departments were placing major emphasis on arterial routes, city street congestion was steadily worsening. it was in this atmosphere that the committee on urban transportation was created in 1954. its purpose was, "to help cities do a better job of transportation planning through systematic collection of basic facts ... to afford the public the best possible transportation at the least possible cost and aid in accomplishing desirable goals of urban renewal and sound urban growth" (national committee, 1958). the committee was composed of experts in a wide range of fields, representing federal, state, and city governments, transit, and other interests. it developed a guidebook, better transportation for your city (national committee, 1958), designed to help local officials establish an orderly program of urban transportation planning. it was supplemented by a series of 17 procedure manuals describing techniques for planning highway, transit, and terminal improvements. the guidebook and manuals received national recognition. even though the guidebook was primarily intended for the attention of local officials, it stressed the need for cooperative action, full communication between professionals and decisionmakers, and the development of transportation systems in keeping with the broad objectives of community development. it provided, for the first time, fully documented procedures for systematic transportation planning. housing act of 1954 an important cornerstone of the federal policy concerning urban planning was section 701 of the housing act of 1954. the act demonstrated congressional concern with urban problems and recognition of the urban planning process as an appropriate approach to dealing with such problems. section 701 authorized 31 the provision of federal planning assistance to state planning agencies, cities, and other municipalities having a population of less than 50,000 persons and, after further amendments, to metropolitan and regional planning agencies (washington center, 1970). the intent of the act was to encourage an orderly process of urban planning to address the problems associated with urban growth and the formulation of local plans and policies. the act indicated that planning should occur on a region-wide basis within the framework of comprehensive planning. pioneering urban transportation studies the developments in analytical methodology began to be applied in pioneering urban transportation studies in the late 1940's and during the 1950's. before these studies, urban transportation planning was based on existing travel demands or on travel forecasts using uniform growth factors applied on an areawide basis. the san juan, puerto rico, transportation study begun in 1948, was one of the earliest to use a trip generation approach to forecast trips. trip generation rates were developed for a series of land- use categories stratified by general location, crude intensity measures and type of activity. these rates were applied, with some modifications, to the projected land use plan (silver and stowers, 1964). the detroit metropolitan area traffic study (dmats) put together all the elements of an urban transportation study for the first time. it was conducted from 1953 to 1955 under executive director dr. j. douglas carroll, jr. the dmats staff developed trip generation rates by land use category for each zone. future trips were estimated from a land use forecast. the trip distribution 32 model was a variant of the gravity model with airline distance as the factor to measure travel friction. traffic assignment was carried out with speed and distance ratio curves. much of the work was done by hand with the aid of tabulating machines for some of the calculations. benefit/cost ratios were used to evaluate the major elements of the expressway network (detroit metropolitan area traffic study, 1955/1956; silver and stowers, 1964; creighton, 1970). in 1955 the chicago area transportation study (cats) began under the direction of dr. j. douglas carroll, jr. it set the standard for future urban transportation studies. the lessons learned in detroit were applied in chicago with greater sophistication. cats used the basic six-step procedure pioneered in detroit: data collection, forecasts, goal formulation, preparation of network proposals, testing of proposals, and evaluation of proposals. transportation networks were developed to serve travel generated by projected land-use patterns. they were tested using systems analysis considering the effect of each facility on other facilities in the network. networks were evaluated based on economic efficiency - the maximum amount of travel carried at the least cost. cats used trip generation, trip distribution, modal split, and traffic assignment models for travel forecasting. a simple land-use forecasting procedure was employed to forecast future land-use and activity patterns. the cats staff made major advances in the use of the computer in travel forecasting (chicago area transportation study, 1959/1962; swerdloff and stowers, 1966; wells, et. al., 1970). other transportation studies followed including the washington area traffic study in 1955, the baltimore transportation study in 1957, the pittsburgh area transportation study (pats) in 1958, the hartford area traffic study in 1958, and the penn-jersey (philadelphia) transportation study in 1959. all of these studies were transportation planning on a new scale. they were region- 33 wide, multi-disciplinary undertakings involving large full-time staffs. urban transportation studies were carried out by ad hoc organizations with separate policy committees. they were not directly connected to any unit of government. generally, these urban transportation studies were established for a limited time period with the objective of producing a plan and reporting on it. such undertakings would have been impossible before the availability of computers (creighton, 1970). the resulting plans were heavily oriented to regional highway networks based primarily on the criteria of economic costs and benefits. transit was given secondary consideration. new facilities were evaluated against traffic engineering improvements. little consideration was given to regulatory or pricing approaches, or new technologies (wells, et.al., 1970). these pioneering urban transportation studies set the content and tone for future studies. they provided the basis for the federal guidelines that were issued in the following decade. federal-aid highway act of 1956 during this early period in the development of urban transportation planning came the federal-aid highway act of 1956. the act launched the largest public works program yet undertaken: construction of the national system of interstate and defense highways. the act was the culmination of two decades of studies and negotiation. as a result of the interregional highways report, congress had adopted a national system of interstate highways not to exceed 40,000 miles in the federal-aid highway act of 1944. however, money was not authorized for construction of the system. based on the recommendations of the u.s. bureau of public roads and the department of defense, a 37,700-mile system was adopted in 1947. this network consisted primarily of the most heavily traveled routes of the federal-aid primary system. the 34 remaining 2,300 miles were reserved for additional radials, bypass- loops, and circumferential routes in and adjacent to urban areas. studies of urban area needs were made by the states with the cooperation and aid of city officials. the urban connections were formally designated in 1955 (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1957). funds were appropriated by then, but at very low levels: $25 million annually for 1952 and 1953 with a 50 percent federal share, and $175 million annually for 1954 and beyond with a 60 percent federal share. to secure a significant increase in funding, a major national lobbying effort was launched in 1952 by the highway users conference under the title, "project adequate roads." president eisenhower appointed a national advisory committee under general lucius d. clay, which produced a report, a ten-year national highway program, in 1955. it recommended building a 37,000-mile interstate system using bonds to fund the $23 billion cost (kuehn, 1976). finally, with the federal-aid highway act of 1956, construction of the national system of interstate and defense highways shifted into high gear. the act increased the authorized system extent to 41,000 miles. this system was planned to link 90 percent of the cities with populations of 50,000 or greater and many smaller cities and towns. the act also authorized the expenditure of $24.8 billion in 13 fiscal years from 1957 to 1969 at a 90 percent federal share. the act provided construction standards and maximum sizes and weights of vehicles that could operate on the system. the system was to be completed by 1972 (kuehn, 1976). the companion highway revenue act of 1956 increased federal taxes on gasoline and other motor fuels and excise taxes on tires and established new taxes on retreaded tires and a weight tax on heavy trucks and buses. it created the highway trust fund to receive the tax revenue which was dedicated solely for highway purposes. this provision broke with a long-standing congressional precedent 35 not to earmark taxes for specific authorized purposes (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1957). these acts have had a profound effect on urban areas. they established an assured funding source for highways, through user charges, at a time when federal funds were not available for mass transportation. they set a 90 percent federal share which was far above the existing 50 percent share for other federal-aid highways. about 20 percent of the system mileage was designated as urban to provide alternative interstate service into, through, and around urban areas. these provisions dominated urban transportation planning for years to come and eventually caused the development of countervailing forces to balance the urban highway program. sagamore conference on highways and urban development the availability of large amounts of funds from the 1956 act brought immediate response to develop action programs. to encourage the cooperative development of highway plans and programs, a conference was held in 1958 in the sagamore center at syracuse university (sagamore, 1958). the conference focused on the need to conduct the planning of urban transportation, including public transportation, on a region-wide, comprehensive basis in a manner that supported the orderly development of the urban areas. the conference report recognized that urban transportation plans should be evaluated through a grand accounting of benefits and costs that included both user and nonuser impacts. the conference recommendations were endorsed and their implementation urged, but progress was slow. the larger urban areas were carrying out pioneering urban transportation studies, the most noteworthy being the cats. but few of the smaller urban 36 areas had begun planning studies due to the lack of capable staff to perform urban transportation planning. to encourage smaller areas to begin planning efforts, the american municipal association, the american association of state highway officials, and the national association of county officials jointly launched a program in early 1962 to describe and explain how to carry out urban transportation planning. this program was initially directed at urban areas under 250,000 in population (holmes, 1973). housing act of 1961 the first piece of federal legislation to deal explicitly with urban mass transportation was the housing act of 1961. this act was passed largely as a result of the growing financial difficulties with commuter rail services. the act inaugurated a small, low-interest loan program for acquisitions and capital improvements for mass transit systems and a demonstration program (washington center, 1970). the act also contained a provision for making federal planning assistance available for "preparation of comprehensive urban transportation surveys, studies, and plans to aid in solving problems of traffic congestion, facilitating the circulation of people and goods on metropolitan and other urban areas and reducing transportation needs." the act permitted federal aid to "facilitate comprehensive planning for urban development, including coordinated transportation systems, on a continuing basis." these provisions of the act amended the section 701 planning program that was created by the housing act of 1954. 37 chapter 4 urban transportation planning comes of age urban transportation planning came of age with the passage of the federal-aid highway act of 1962, which required that approval of any federal-aid highway project in an urbanized area of 50,000 or more in population be based on a continuing, comprehensive urban transportation planning process carried out cooperatively by states and local governments. this was the first legislative mandate requiring planning as a condition to receiving federal capital assistance funds. the u.s. bureau of public roads (bpr) moved quickly to issue technical guidance interpreting the act's provisions. through the mid 1960's urban transportation planning went through what some have called its "golden age." most urban areas were planning their regional highway system and urban transportation planning methodology had been designed to address this issue. the bpr carried out an extensive program of research, technical assistance and training to foster the adoption of this process and the new methodologies. these efforts completely transformed the manner in which urban transportation planning was performed. by the legislated deadline of july 1, 1965, all 224 then existing urbanized areas that fell under the 1962 act had a urban transportation planning process underway. this was also a period in which there was early recognition of the need for a federal role in urban mass transportation. this role, however, was to remain limited for a number of years to come. joint report on urban mass transportation in march 1962 a joint report on urban mass transportation was 39 submitted to president kennedy, at his request, by the secretary of commerce and the housing and home finance administrator (u.s. congress, senate, 1962). this report integrated the objectives for highways and mass transit, which were comparatively independent up to that point but growing closer through cooperative activities. the report was in large part based on a study completed in 1961 by the institute of public administration (ipa) entitled urban transportation and public policy (fitch, 1964). the ipa report strongly recommended that urban transportation was a federal concern and supported the need for transportation planning. the general thrust of the report to congress, as it related to planning, can be summarized by the following excerpt from the transmittal letter: "transportation is one of the key factors in shaping our cities. as our communities increasingly undertake deliberate measures to guide their development and renewal, we must be sure that transportation planning and construction are integral parts of general development planning and programming. one of our main recommendations is that federal aid for urban transportation should be made available only when urban communities have prepared or are actively preparing up-to-date general plans for the entire urban area which relate transportation plans to land-use and development plans. "the major objectives of urban transportation policy are the achievement of sound land-use patterns, the assurance of transportation facilities for all segments of the population, the improvement of overall traffic flow, and the meeting of total transportation needs at minimum cost. only a balanced transportation system can attain these goals - and in many urban areas this means an extensive mass transportation network fully integrated with the highway and street system. but mass 40 transportation in recent years experienced capital consumption rather than expansion. a cycle of fare increases and service cuts to offset loss of ridership followed by further declines in use points clearly to the need for a substantial contribution of public funds to support needed mass transportation improvements. we therefore recommend a new program of grants and loans for urban mass transportation" (u.s. congress, senate, 1962). president kennedy's transportation message in april 1962 president kennedy delivered his first message to congress on the subject of transportation. many of the ideas related to urban transportation in the message drew upon the previously mentioned joint report. the president's message recognized the close relationship between the community development and the need to properly balance the use of private automobiles and mass transportation to help shape and serve urban areas. it also recognized the need to promote economic efficiency and livability of urban areas. it also recommended continued close cooperation between the department of commerce and the housing and home finance administration (hhfa) (washington center, 1970). this transportation message opened a new era in urban transportation and led to passage of two landmark pieces of legislation: the federal-aid highway act of 1962 and the urban mass transportation act of 1964. federal-aid highway act of 1962 the federal-aid highway act of 1962 was the first piece of federal legislation to mandate urban transportation planning as a condition for receiving federal funds in urbanized areas. it asserted that federal concern in urban transportation was to be integrated with land development and provided a major stimulus to 41 urban transportation planning. section 9 of the act, which is now section 134 of title 23 states: "it is declared to be in the national interest to encourage and promote the development of transportation systems embracing various modes of transport in a manner that will serve the states and local communities efficiently and effectively" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1980a). this statement of policy directly followed from the recommendations of the sagamore conference and president kennedy's transportation message. moreover, the section directed the secretary of commerce to cooperate with the states: "...in the development of long-range highway plans and programs which are properly coordinated with plans for improvements in other affected forms of transportation and which are formulated with due consideration to their probable effect on the future development of the urban area..." (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1980a). the last sentence of the section which required that urban highway construction projects be based upon a planning process, legislated the planning requirement: "after july 1, 1965, the secretary shall not approve under section 105 of this title any programs for projects in any urban area of more than fifty thousand population unless he finds that such projects are based on a continuing, comprehensive transportation planning process carried out cooperatively by states and local communities in conformance with the objectives stated in this section" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1980a). two features of the act are particularly significant with respect to the organizational arrangements for carrying out the planning 42 process. first, it called for a planning process in urban areas rather than cities, which set the scale at the metropolitan or regional level. second, it called for the process to be carried on cooperatively by the states and local communities. because qualified planning agencies to mount such a transportation planning process were lacking in many urban areas, the bpr required the creation of planning agencies or organizational arrangements that would be capable of carrying out the required planning process. these planning organizations quickly came into being because of the growing momentum of the highway program and the cooperative financing of the planning process by the hhfa and the bpr (marple, 1969). in addition, the act restricted the use of the 1-1/2 percent planning and research funds to only those purposes. if not used for planning and research, the state would lose the funds. previously, a state could request that these funds be used instead for construction. this provision created a permanent, assured funding source for planning and research activities. in addition, the act provided that a state could spend another 1/2 percent at their option for planning and research activities. hershey conference on urban freeways in response to the growing concern about freeway construction in urban areas, the hershey conference on freeways in the urban setting was convened in june 1962 (freeways, 1962). it concluded, "freeways cannot be planned independently of the areas through which they pass. the planning concept should extend to the entire sector of the city within the environs of the freeway. the conference recommendations reinforced the need to integrate highway planning and urban development. the findings recognized that this planning should be done as a team effort that draws upon the skills of engineers, architects, 43 city planners, and other specialists. freeway planning must integrate the freeway with its surroundings. when properly planned, freeways provide an opportunity to shape and structure the urban community in a manner that meets the needs of the people who live, work, and travel in these areas. further, the planning effort should be carried out in a manner that involves participation by the community (freeways, 1962). implementation of the 1962 federal-aid highway act the bpr moved quickly to implement the planning requirements of the 1962 federal-aid highway act. instructional memorandum 50-263, published in march 1963 (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1963c) and later superseded by policy and procedure memorandum 50-9 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1967a), interpreted the act's provisions related to a "continuing, comprehensive, and cooperative" (3c) planning process. "cooperative" was defined to include not only cooperation between the federal, state, and local levels of government but also among the various agencies within the same level of government. "continuing" referred to the need to periodically reevaluate and update a transportation plan. "comprehensive" was defined to include the basic ten elements of a 3c planning process for which inventories and analyses were required. (table 2) these memoranda and further refinements and expansions upon them covered all aspects for organizing and carrying out the 3c planning process. through its urban planning division, under garland e. marple, the bpr carried out a broad program to develop planning procedures and computer programs, write procedural manuals and guides, teach training courses, and provide technical assistance. the effort was aimed at developing urbanized area planning organizations, standardizing, computerizing and applying procedures largely 44 table 2 ten basic elements of a 3c planning process 1. economic factors affecting development 2. population 3. land use 4. transportation facilities including those for mass transportation 5. travel patterns 6. terminal and transfer facilities 7. traffic control features 8. zoning ordinances, subdivision regulations, building codes, etc. 9. financial resources 10. social and community-value factors, such as preservation of open space, parks and recreational facilities; preservation of historical sites and buildings; environmental amenities; and aesthetics. 45 created in the late 1950's, and disseminating knowledge of such procedures. the bpr defined the various steps in a 3c planning process. these steps had been pioneered by the urban transportation planning studies that were carried out during the 1950's. it was an empirical approach which required a substantial amount of data and several years to complete. the process consisted of: establishing an organization to carry out the planning process; development of local goals and objectives; surveys and inventories of existing conditions and facilities; analyses of current conditions and calibration of forecasting techniques; forecasting of future activity and travel; evaluation of alternative transportation networks resulting in a recommended transportation plan; staging of the transportation plan; and identification of resources to implement it. the product of these 3c planning studies was generally an elaborate report(s) describing the procedures, analyses, alternatives and recommended plans. to foster the adoption of these technical procedures, the bpr released a stream of procedural manuals that became the technical standards for many years to come: calibrating and testing a gravity model for any size urban area, (july 1963); calibrating and testing a gravity model with a small computer, (october 1963); traffic assignment manual, (june 1964); population forecasting methods, (june 1964); population, economic, and land use studies in urban transportation planning, (july 1964); the standard land use coding manual, (january 1965); the role of economic studies in urban transportation planning, (august 1965); traffic assignment and distribution for small urban areas, (september 1965), modal split- documentation of nine methods for estimating transit usage, (december 1966); and guidelines for trip generation analysis, (june 1967). the bpr developed a two-week "urban transportation planning 46 course" that was directed at practicing planners and engineers. it covered organizational issues and technical procedures for carrying out a 3c planning process as it had been conceptualized by the bpr. the course used the bpr manuals as textbooks and supplemented them with lecture notes to keep the information current and to cover material not in manual form. in addition, personnel from the bpr provided hands-on technical assistance to state and local agencies in the applying these new procedures to their own areas. this effort to define the "3c planning process," to develop techniques for performing the technical activities, and to provide technical assistance completely transformed the manner in which urban transportation planning was performed. by the legislated deadline of july 1, 1965, all the 224 existing urbanized areas which fell under the 1962 act had an urban transportation planning process underway (holmes, 1973). conventional urban travel forecasting process the 3c planning process included four technical phases: collection of data, analysis of data, forecasts of activity and travel, and evaluation of alternatives. central to this approach was the urban travel forecasting process. (figure 5) the process used mathematical models that allowed the simulation and forecasting of current and future travel. this permitted the testing and evaluation of alternative transportation networks. the four-step urban travel forecasting process consisted of trip generation, trip distribution, modal split, and traffic assignment. these models were first calibrated to replicate existing travel using actual survey data. these models were then used to forecast future travel. the forecasting process began with an estimate of the variables that determine travel patterns including the location and intensity of land use, social and 47 click here for graphic. 48 economic characteristics of the population, and the type and extent of transportation facilities in the area. next, these variables were used to estimate the number of trip origins and destinations in each subarea of a region (i.e. the traffic analysis zone), using a trip generation procedure. a trip distribution model was used to connect the trip ends into an origin-destination trip pattern. this matrix of total vehicle trips was divided into highway and transit trips using a modal split model. the matrices of highway and transit trips were assigned to routes on the highway and transit networks, respectively, by means of a traffic assignment model (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977). in using these models to analyze future transportation networks, forecasts of input variables were used for the year for which the networks were being tested. travel forecasts were then prepared for each transportation alternative to determine traffic volumes and levels of service. usually only the modal split and traffic assignment models were rerun for additional networks after a future year forecast had been made for the first network. but occasionally the trip distribution model was also rerun. travel forecasting on a regionwide scale required a large computing capability. the first generation of computers had become available in the mid 1950's. the bpr had taken advantage of them and adapted a telephone routing algorithm for traffic assignments purposes that would operate on the ibm 704 computer. additional programs were developed to perform other functions. the second generation of computers, circa 1962, provided increased capabilities. the library of computer programs was rewritten for the ibm 709 computer and then for the ibm 7090/94 system. the bpr worked with the bureau of standards in developing, modifying, and testing these programs. some programs were also developed for the ibm 1401 and 1620 computers. this effort was carried out over a number of years, and by 1967 the computer package contained about 49 60 programs (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977). this approach to travel forecasting, which later became known as the "conventional urban travel forecasting process," came quickly into widespread use. the procedures had been specifically tailored to the tasks of regionwide urban transportation planning and bpr provided substantial assistance and oversight in applying them. moreover, there were no other procedures generally available and urban transportation study groups that chose not to use them had to develop their own procedures and computer programs. southeastern wisconsin regional planning commission in most urbanized areas, ad hoc organizational arrangements were created to conduct the urban transportation planning process required by the federal-aid highway act of 1962 and the bureau of public's guidelines. in some urbanized areas, however, the urban transportation planning process was carried out by existing regional planning agencies. this was the case for the urbanized areas of milwaukee, racine and kenosha in southeastern wisconsin. the southeastern wisconsin regional planning commission (sewrpc) was created under state enabling legislation by executive order of the governor of wisconsin in 1960 upon petition of the county boards of the seven constituent counties. it was directed to prepare and adopt master plans for the physical development of the southeastern wisconsin region on the basis of studies and analyses. the commission itself was formed with 21 citizen members, serving for six years without pay, three from each county, with one member from each county appointed by the county board and the other two members appointed by the governor (bauer, 1963). the regional land use-transportation study, which began in 1963, 50 was the commission's first long-range planning effort. the staff proceeded under the guidance of the intergovernmental coordinating and the technical coordinating committees. (figure 6) the 3 1/2 year, $2 million study covered the development of goals and objectives, inventory of existing conditions, preparation and analysis of alternative plans, and selection and adoption of the preferred plan (southeastern wisconsin regional planning commission, 1965-66). sewrpc prepared three alternative land use plans for the year 1990. the "controlled existing trend plan" continued the low-density residential development trend with the imposition of land use controls to minimize leap-frog development and reduce encroachment on environmentally sensitive areas. the "corridor plan" concentrated medium and high density residential development along transportation corridors interlocked with recreation and agriculture wedges. the "satellite city plan" focused new residential development into existing outlying communities in the region. a transportation plan was developed for each of the land use plans which primarily consisted of the existing plus committed highway and transit systems with additions, including an extensive bus rapid transit system with an exclusive busway. the recommended "controlled existing trend plan" was adopted by the full commission and eventually by most of the county boards and local units of government. in 1966, sewrpc began the continuing phase of the land use-transportation study which provided support to implement the plan, monitored changes in the region and progress in implementing the adopted plan, and conducted periodic reappraisals of the plan in light of the changes in the region. in the ensuing years, sewrpc conducted a wide range of planning studies including those related to: watershed development and water quality, air quality, highway functional classification, public transportation, parks and open space, port development, 51 click here for graphic. 52 libraries, airport use, and prepared many local plans in cooperation with the local jurisdictions. moreover, it provided extensive technical assistance to local governments on a variety of planning issues. highway planning program manual as part of its extensive efforts to provide technical guidance for carrying out highway planning, the bpr developed the highway planning program manual.. the manual was designed to consolidate technical information on highway planning practice and make it readily available. much of that information on highway planning practice and many of the manuals had been developed by the bpr. the highway planning program manual was first issued in august 1963 (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1963d). it was directed primarily at the highway engineers in bpr's field offices who needed information to administer highway planning activities that were being carried out by state highway departments and by urban transportation planning groups with federal-aid highway planning funds. it also provided valuable information to those performing the actual planning activities in state and local agencies. the manual covered the basic elements of a highway planning program which included: administration and control, highway inventory, mapping, traffic counting, classifying and weighing, travel studies, motor vehicle registration and taxes, highway fiscal data, road life expectancy and costs, and urban transportation planning. the goal for the overall highway planning process was to develop a master plan for highway development. this was to consist of a functionally classified highway system, an estimate of highway needs, a long range development program to meet the needs with priorities and, a financial plan to pay for the development program. 53 the section of the manual devoted urban transportation planning to was equally detailed. it covered the various aspects of the urban transportation planning process including: organization, use of computers, origin destination studies, population studies, economic studies, land use, street inventory and classification, evaluation of traffic services, traffic engineering studies, public transportation, terminal facilities, travel forecasting, traffic assignment, developing the transportation plan, plan implementation, and the continuing planning process. the federal highway administration continued to update the highway planning program manual and add appendices, which included recent version of relevant procedure manuals, until the early 1980's. the manual was eventually rescinded by fhwa in 1985. urban mass transportation act of 1964 the first real effort to provide federal assistance for urban mass transportation development was the passage of the urban mass transportation act of 1964. the objective of the act, still in the spirit of president kennedy's transportation message, was "...to encourage the planning and establishment of areawide urban mass transportation systems needed for economical and desirable urban development" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979b). the act authorized federal capital grants for up to two-thirds of the net project cost of construction, reconstruction, or acquisition of mass transportation facilities and equipment. net project cost was defined as that portion of the total project cost that could not be financed readily from transit revenues. however, the federal share was to be held to 50 percent in those areas that had not completed their comprehensive planning process, that is, had not produced a plan. all federal funds had to be channeled through public agencies. transit projects were to be initiated locally. 54 a program of research, development, and demonstrations was also authorized by the 1964 act. the objective of this program was to "... assist in the reduction of transportation needs, the improvement of mass transportation service, or the contribution of such service toward meeting total urban transportation needs at minimum cost" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979b). congress, however, did not authorize much money to carry out this legislation. not more than $150 million per year was authorized under the 1964 act and the actual appropriations fell short of even that amount (smerk, 1968). urban development simulation models with the growth of urban transportation planning came an increasing interest in understanding urban phenomena and in constructing urban development simulation models. such models would enable planners to evaluate alternative urban development patterns, and to produce information on population, employment, and land use for use in estimating travel and transportation requirements. land use simulation models developed in early urban transportation studies were rudimentary and focused on the effect of transportation access on the location of activities (swerdloff and stowers, 1966). during this period many cities were actively engaged in developing work plans to eliminate slums and urban blight through community renewal programs (crps) that were partially funded by the housing and home finance agency (hhfa). these crps provided an additional impetus for the development of urban simulation models. it was as part of one of these crps that a significant breakthrough occurred. between 1962-63, ira s. lowry developed a land use allocation model for the pittsburgh regional planning association as part of a modeling system to generate alternatives and aid decisionmaking (lowry, 1964). 55 the "lowry model," as it came to be known, was the first large scale and complete urban simulation model to become operational. the model was attractive because of the simplicity of its causal structure, the opportunity to expand it, and its operationality (goldner, 1971). the underlying concept of the model used economic base theory in which employment was divided into "basic" employment that was devoted to goods and services exported outside the region, and "retail" or "non-basic" employment that served local markets. basic employment was located outside the model, while non-basic employment by the model on the basis of its accessibility to households. households were located on the basis of accessibility to jobs and availability of vacant land. the model proceeded in an iterative fashion until equilibrium was reached (putman, 1979). the conceptual framework developed by lowry stimulated an era of model development during the mid-1960's, much of which concentrated on elaborations and enhancements of the original lowry model concepts (goldner, 1971; harris, 1965; putman, 1979). the lowry model evolved through further development in pittsburgh and the san francisco bay area simulation study, and other efforts by a number of researchers. most of this work, however, did not result in models that did not become operational (goldner, 1971). after a period of dormancy, work began anew and resulted in the development of the integrated transportation and land-use package (itlup). this set of models performed lad use activity allocation incorporated the effects of transportation and land use and the feedback effects of land use on transportation (putman, 1983). williamsburg conference on highways and urban development by 1965 there was concern that planning processes were not adequately evaluating social and community values. few planning studies had developed goal-based evaluation methodologies. a second conference on highways and urban development was held in 56 williamsburg, virginia, to discuss this problem (highways and urban development, 1965). the conference concluded that transportation must be directed toward raising urban standards and enhancing aggregate community values. transportation values such as safety, economy, and comfort are part of the total set of community values and should be weighted appropriately. the conference resolutions highlighted the need to identify urban goals and objectives that should be used to evaluate urban transportation plans. it emphasized that many values may not be quantifiable but, nonetheless, should not be ignored. the conference also endorsed the concept of making maximum use of existing transportation facilities through traffic management and land use controls. 57 58 chapter 5 improved intergovernmental coordination as the number and scope of federal programs for urban development and transportation projects expanded, there was increasing concern over the uncoordinated manner in which these project were being carried out. each of these federal programs had separate grant requirements which were often development with little regard to the requirements of other programs. projects proceeded through the approval and implementation process uncoordinated with other projects that were occurring in the same area. during this period, several actions were taken to alleviate this problem. first, was an attempt to better integrate urban development and transportation programs at the federal level by bringing them together in two new cabinet level departments, hud and dot. second, was the creation of a project review process to improve intergovernmental coordination at both the federal and local levels. states and local governments also moved to address this problem by consolidating functions and responsibilities. many states created their own departments of transportation. in addition, states and local communities created broader, multi- functional planning agencies to better coordinate and plan areawide development. the urban transportation planning process transitioned into the "continuing" phase as most urban areas completed their first plans. there was a new interest in low capital approaches to reducing traffic congestion using techniques such as reserved bus lanes, traffic engineering improvements, and fringe parking lots. it was also during this time that national concern was focused upon the problem of highway safety and the enormous cost of traffic accidents. environmental issues became more important 59 with legislation addressing the preservation of natural areas and historic sites, and providing relocation assistance for households and businesses. housing and urban development act of 1965 the housing and urban development act of 1965 created the department of housing and urban development (hud) to better coordinate urban programs at the federal level. in addition, the act amended the section 701 urban planning assistance program established under the housing act of 1954 by authorizing grants to be made to "...organizations composed of public officials whom he (the secretary of hud) finds to be representative of the political jurisdictions within a metropolitan area or urban region..." for the purposes of comprehensive planning (washington center, 1970). this provision encouraged the formation of regional planning organizations controlled by elected rather than appointed officials. it gave impetus to the formation of such organizations as councils of governments (cogs). it also encouraged local governments to cooperate in addressing their problems in a regional context. 1966 amendments to the urban mass transportation act to fill several gaps in the 1964 urban mass transportation act, a number of amendments were passed in 1966. one created the technical studies program, which provided federal assistance up to a two-thirds federal matching share for planning, engineering, and designing of urban mass transportation projects or other similar technical activities leading to application for a capital grant. another section authorized grants to be made for management training. a third authorized a project to study and prepare a program of research for developing new systems of urban 60 transportation. this section resulted in a report to congress in 1968, tomorrow's transportation: new systems for the urban future (cole, 1968), which recommended a long-range balanced program for research on hardware, planning, and operational improvements. it was this study that first brought to public attention many new systems such as dial-a-bus, personal rapid transit, dual mode, pallet systems, and tracked air-cushioned vehicle systems. this study was the basis for numerous research efforts to develop and refine new urban transportation technologies that would improve on existing ones. highway and motor vehicle safety acts of 1966 in 1964, highway deaths amounted to 48,000 persons, 10 percent above 1963, and the death rate was increasing. in march of 1965, newly senator abraham ribicoff, chairman of the subcommittee on executive reorganization of the government operations committee, held hearings on the issue of highway safety to focus national concern on this national tragedy. ralph nader who was already working on highway safety volunteered to assist senator ribicoff's committee. he provided much material to the committee based on his research and a book that he was writing on traffic safety (insurance institute for highway safety, 1986). in the july hearings, general motors" president admitted that his company had only spent $1.25 million on safety in the previous year. following that disclosure, president johnson ordered special assistant joseph califano to develop a transportation package. in november 1965, nader's book, unsafe at any speed, was published with criticism of both the automobile industry and the traffic safety establishment. in february 1966, president johnson told the american trial lawyers association that highway deaths were second only to the vietnam war as the "gravest problem before the nation." a month 61 later, the president's message requested the congress to establish a department of transportation. his message also outlined a national traffic safety act to require the establishment of motor vehicle standards, provide for state grants in aid for safety programs, and fund traffic safety research. by august, both housed unanimously passed a motor vehicle standards bill and, with only 3 dissenting votes in the senate, passed state program legislation. the final bills were signed by president johnson on september 9, 1966. the national traffic and motor vehicle safety act of 1966 established the national traffic safety agency in the department of commerce. it required the establishment of minimum safety standards for motor vehicles and equipment, authorized research and development, and expanded the national driver register of individuals whose licenses had been denied, terminated, or withdrawn. according to the act, each standard was required to be practical, meet the need for motor vehicle safety, and stated in objective terms. in prescribing standards, the secretary was required to consider: (1) relevant available motor vehicle safety data, (2) whether the proposed standard in appropriate for the particular motor vehicle or equipment for-which it is prescribed, and (3) the extent to which the standard contributed to carrying out the purposes of the act (comptroller general, 1976). the highway safety act of 1966 established the national highway safety agency in the department of commerce. it was designed to provide a coordinated national highway safety program through financial assistance to the states. under this act, states were required to establish highway safety programs in accordance with federal standards. federal funds were made available under section 402, to be allocated by population and highway mileage, to assist in financing these programs with a 75 percent federal and 25 percent matching ratio (insurance institute for highway safety, 1986). 62 the two safety agencies were combined by executive order 11357 into the national highway safety bureau in the newly created dot. by 1969, the bureau, under dr. william haddon jr., had established 29 motor vehicle standards and 13 highway safety standards and all states had established highway safety programs. by the end of 1972, the agency had issued a total of 43 motor vehicle standards, covering vehicle accident prevention and passenger protection, and 18 highway safety standards, covering vehicle inspection, registration, motorcycle safety, driver education, traffic laws and records, accident investigation and reporting, pupil transportation and police traffic services (insurance institute for highway safety, 1986). these two safety acts provided the basis for a practical, comprehensive national highway safety program to reduce deaths and injuries caused by motor vehicles. department of transportation act of 1966 in 1966 the department of transportation (dot) was created to coordinate transportation programs and to facilitate development and improvement of coordinated transportation service utilizing private enterprise to the maximum extent feasible. the department of transportation act declared that the nation required fast, safe, efficient, and convenient transportation at the lowest cost consistent with other national objectives including the conservation of natural resources. dot was directed to provide leadership in the identification of transportation problems and solutions, stimulate new technological advances, encourage cooperation among all interested parties, and recommend national policies and programs to accomplish these objectives. section 4(f) of the act required the preservation of natural areas. it prohibited the use of land for a transportation project from a park, recreation area, wildlife and waterfowl refuge, or 63 historic site unless there was no feasible and prudent alternative and the project was planned in such a manner as to minimize harm to the area. this was the earliest statutory language directed at minimizing the negative effects of transportation construction projects on the natural environment. the dot act left unclear, however, the division of responsibility for urban mass transportation between dot and hud. it took more than a year for dot and hud to come to an agreement on their respective responsibilities. this agreement, known as reorganization plan no. 2, took effect in july 1968. under it, dot assumed responsibility for mass transportation capital grants, technical studies, and managerial training grant programs subject to hud certification of the planning requirements for capital grant applications. research and development (r&d) was divided up. dot assumed r&d responsibility for improving the operation of conventional transit systems and hud assumed r&d responsibility for urban transportation as it related to comprehensive planning. joint responsibility was assigned for r&d on advanced technology systems. the reorganization plan also created the urban mass transportation administration (umta) (miller, 1972). national historic preservation act of 1966 through the 1950's and 1960's, while the federal government funded numerous public works and urban renewal projects, federal preservation law applied only to a handful of nationally significant properties. as a result, federal projects destroyed or damaged thousands of historic properties. congress recognized that new legislation was needed to protect the many other properties that were being harmed by federal activities (advisory council on historic preservation, 1986). the national historic preservation act of 1966 was passed to address these concerns. the act established the advisory council 64 on historic preservation to provide advice on national preservation policy. section 106 of the act required federal agencies to take into account the effects of their undertakings on historic preservation, and to afford the council the opportunity to comment on such undertakings. section 110 required federal agencies to identify and protect historic properties under their control. the section 106 review process established by the council required a federal agency funding or otherwise involved in a proposed project to identify historic properties that might be affected by the project and find acceptable means to avoid or mitigate any adverse impact. federal agencies were to consult with the council and state historic preservation officers, appointed by the governors, in carrying out this process. demonstration cities and metropolitan development act of 1966 with the growth in federal grant programs for urban renewal, highways, transit, and other construction projects, there was a need for a mechanism to coordinate these projects. the demonstration cities and metropolitan development act of 1966 was enacted to ensure that federal grants were not working at cross purposes. section 204 of that act was significant in asserting federal interest in improving the coordination of public facility construction projects to obtain maximum effectiveness of federal spending and to relate such projects to areawide development plans. section 204 required that all applications for the planning and construction of facilities be submitted to an areawide planning agency for review and comment. the areawide agency was required to be composed of local elected officials. the objective was to encourage the coordination of planning and construction of physical facilities in urban areas. section 204 was also designed 65 to stimulate operating agencies with narrow functional responsibilities to examine the relationship of their projects to areawide plans for urban growth. procedures to implement this act were issued by the bureau of the budget in circular no. 82, "coordination of federal aids in metropolitan areas under section 204 of the demonstration cities and metropolitan development act of 1966" (bureau of the budget, 1967). in response to these review requirements, many urban areas established new planning agencies or reorganized existing agencies to include elected officials on their policy boards. by the end of 1969, only six metropolitan lacked an areawide review agency (washington center, 1970). dartmouth conference on urban development models land-use planning models were developed as an adjunct to transportation planning to provide forecasts of population, employment, and land-use for transportation forecasting models. from the mid 1950's there was rapid development in the field stimulated by newly available computers and advances in operations research and systems analysis (putman, 1979). developments were discussed at a seminar at the university of pennsylvania in october 1964 that was documented in a special issue of the journal of the american institute of planners (harris, 1965). by 1967 the land-use evaluation committee of the highway research board determined that there was need for another assessment of work in the field, which was progressing in an uncoordinated fashion. a conference was held in dartmouth, new hampshire, in june 1967 to identify the areas of research that were most needed (hemmens, 1968). the conferees recommended that agencies sponsoring research on land use models, generally the federal government, expand the 66 capabilities of their in-house staff to handle these models. they recommended steps to improve data acquisition and handling. further research on broader models that included social goals was recommended. conferees recommended that research on the behavioral aspects of the individual decision units be conducted. concern was expressed about bridging the gap between modelers and decisionmakers. professional standards for design, calibration and use of models was also encouraged (hemmens, 1968). the early optimism in the field faded as the land development models did not perform up to the expectations of researchers and decisionmakers, particularly at the small area level. modelers had underestimated the task of simulating complex urban phenomena. many of these modeling efforts were performed by planning agencies that had to meet unreasonable time deadlines. (putman, 1979) models had become more complex with larger data requirements as submodels were added to encompass more aspects of the urban development process. they were too costly to construct and operate, and many still did not produce usable results. by the late 1960's land-use modeling activity in the united states entered a period of dormancy that continued until the mid 1970's. reserved bus lanes as construction of the interstate highway progressed, highway engineers came under increasing criticism for providing underpriced facilities that competed unfairly with transit service. critics were also concerned that the 3c planning process was not giving sufficient attention to transit options in the development of long- range urban transportation plans. the first official response to this criticism came in april 1964 in a speech by e. h. holmes, director of planning for the bureau of public roads. mr. holmes stated, "since over three-quarters of transit patrons ride on rubber tires, not on steel rails, transit 67 has to be for highways, not against them. and vice versa, highways have to be for transit, not against it, for the more that travelers patronize transit the easier will be the highway engineer's job." he went on to advocate the use of freeways by buses in express service. this would increase bus operating speeds, reduce their travel times, and thereby make bus service more competitive with car travel. the bpr position was that the reservation of a lane for buses was reasonable if its usage by bus passengers exceeded the number of persons that would be moved in the same period in cars, for example, 3,000 persons per hour for a lane of freeway (holmes, 1964). this position was formalized in instructional memorandum (im) 2113- 67, "reserved bus lanes," issued by the federal highway administration (fhwa) in august 1967. in addition to reiterating the warrant for reserving of lanes for buses, the im stated the warrant for preferential use of lanes by buses. under preferential use, other vehicles would be allowed to use the lane but only in such numbers that they do not degrade the travel speeds of the buses. the number of other vehicles would be controlled by metering their flow onto the lane. the total number of persons using the preferential lanes was to be greater than would be accommodated by opening the lanes to general traffic. the fhwa actively promoted the use of exclusive and preferential bus treatments. expenditures for bus priority projects on arterial highways, including loading platforms and shelters, became eligible for federal-aid highway funds under the traffic operations program to improve capacity and safety (topics), which was initiated as an experimental program in 1967. reserved lanes for buses on freeways were eligible under the regular federal-aid highway programs. many urban areas adopted bus priority techniques to increase the carrying capacity of highway facilities and make transit service 68 more attractive at a limited cost. by 1973 one study reported on more than 200 bus priority projects in the united states and elsewhere. these included busways on exclusive rights-of-way and on freeways, reserved freeway lanes and ramps, bus malls, reserved lanes on arterial streets, traffic signal preemption, and supporting park-and-ride lots and central city terminals (levinson, 1973). national highway needs studies the expected completion of the interstate highway system in the mid 1970's lead to consideration of new directions for the federal-aid highway program. recognizing the need for information on which to formulate future highway programs, the u.s. senate, in section 3 of the senate joint resolution 81 (approved august 28, 1965) called for a biennial reporting of highway needs beginning in 1968. in april 1965, the u.s. bureau of public roads had requested the states to prepare estimates of future highway needs for the period 1965-85. the states were given only a few months to prepare the estimates and they relied upon available data and rapid estimating techniques. the results were documented in the 1968 national highway needs report. the estimated cost of $294 billion to meet the anticipated highway needs was a staggering sum. it included another 40,000 of freeways in addition to the 41,000 miles in the interstate system (u.s. congress, 1968a). the supplement to the report recommended the undertaking of a nationwide functional highway classification study as the basis for realigning the federal-aid highway systems (u.s. congress, 1968b). the 1968 report focused greater attention on urban areas than in the past. the supplement recommended that a larger share of federal-aid highway funds should be made available to urban areas. as a means to accomplish this, the supplement discussed expanding 69 the urban extensions of the primary and secondary highway systems to include all principal arterial routes into a federal-aid urban system. to overcome the difficulties of urban area decisionmaking among fragmented local governments, it suggested requiring the establishment of areawide agencies to develop five-year capital improvement programs. the agencies would be governed by locally elected officials (u.s. congress, 1968b). the supplement also recommended the use of federal-aid highway funds for a parking research and development projects, and for construction of fringe parking facilities. the establishment of a revolving fund for advance acquisition of right-of-way was recommended as well. the supplement advocated joint development adjacent to or using airspace above or below highways. such projects should be coordinated jointly by dot and hud (u.s. congress, 1968b). many of the recommendations in the supplement to the 1968 national highway needs report were incorporated into the federal-aid highway acts of 1968 and 1970. section 17 of the 1968 act called for a systematic nationwide functional highway classification study in cooperation with state highway departments and local governments. the manual for this functional classification study stated that, "all existing public roads and streets within a state are to be classified on the basis of the most logical usage of existing facilities to serve present travel and land use" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1969b). this was the first major study to collect detailed functional system information on a nationwide basis. the supplement to the 1970 national highway needs report detailed the results of the 1968 functional classification study which covered existing facilities under current conditions of travel and land use. the results showed that there was wide variation among states in the coincidence of highways classified functionally and 70 which federal-aid system they were on. this disparity was greater in urban areas than in rural areas. the report demonstrated that arterial highways carried the bulk of highway travel. for example, in urban areas in 1968, arterial highways constituted 19 percent of the miles of facilities and carried 75 percent of the vehicle miles of travel (u.s. congress, 1970). (figure 7) the 1972-- national highway needs report documented the results of the 1970-1990 functional classification study. it combined a projected functional classification for 1990 with a detailed inventory and needs estimate for all functional classes including local roads and streets. it recommended the realignment of federal-aid highway systems based upon functional usage in a subsequent year such as 1980. this recommendation for realignment was incorporated into the federal-aid highway act of 1973. highway needs were estimated for the twenty-year period to 1990 under nationally uniform "minimum tolerable conditions". of the estimated $592 billion in needs, 43 percent were on federal-aid systems as they existed in 1970. over 50 percent of these needs were considered to be "backlog," that is, requiring immediate attention (u.s. congress 1972b and 1972c). the 1974 national highway needs updated the needs estimates that were reported in the 1972 report. the 1974 highway needs study was conducted as part of the 1974 national transportation study. the 1974 highway report analyzed the sensitivity of the needs estimates to the changes of reduced forecasted travel and a lower level of service than a minimum tolerable conditions. the report clarified that the highway needs estimates are dependent upon the specific set of standards of highway service and highway design on which they are based. the highway needs studies represented a ongoing process to assess the nations highway system and quantify the nature and scope of future highway requirements. the studies were carried out as 71 click here for graphic. 72 cooperative efforts of the federal, state and local governments. the extensive involvement of state and local governments lent considerable credibility to the studies. consequently, the highway needs reports had a major influence on highway legislation, and the structure and funding of highway programs (u.s. congress, 1975). federal-aid-highway act of 1968 the federal-aid highway act of 1968 established the traffic operations program to improve capacity and safety (topics). it authorized $200 million each for fiscal years 1970 and 1971. the federal matching share was set at 50 percent. the program was designed to reduce traffic congestion and facilitate the flow of traffic in urban areas. prior to the act, the bureau of public roads had initiated topics as an experimental program. im 21-767, which established guidelines for topics, divided urban streets into two categories. those on the federal-aid primary and secondary systems were considered type 1. other major streets were under type 2. only traffic operations improvements were allowed on type 2 systems (gakenheimer and meyer, 1977). the topics program grew out of a long history of the bpr's efforts to expand the use of traffic engineering techniques. in 1959, the bpr sponsored the wisconsin avenue study to demonstrate the effectiveness of various traffic management methods when applied in a coordinated fashion (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1962). topics projects were to result from the 3c urban transportation planning process. by october 1969 there were 160 cities actively involved in topics and another 96 cities in preliminary negotiations expected to result in active projects. even so, the level of planning detail for topics projects was not totally compatible with the regional scale of the planning process (gakenheimer and meyer, 1977). 73 the topics program was re-authorized for fiscal years 1972 and 1973 at $100 million per year. but the federal-aid highway act of 1973 ended further authorizations and merged the topics systems into the new federal-aid urban system. topics had accomplished its objective of increasing the acceptance of traffic engineering techniques as a means of improving the efficiency of the urban transportation system. it also played an important role in encouraging the concept of traffic management (gakenheimer and meyer, 1977). in addition to launching the topics program, the federal-aid highway act of 1968 incorporated several provisions designed to protect the environment and reduce the negative effects of highway construction. the act repeated the requirement in section 4(f) of the department of transportation act of 1966 on the preservation of public park and recreation lands, wildlife and waterfowl refuges, and historic sites to clarify that the provision applied to highways. moreover the act required public hearings on the economic, social, and environmental effects of proposed highway projects and their consistency with local urban goals and objectives. the act also established the highway beautification program. in addition a highway relocation assistance program was authorized to provide payments to households and businesses displaced by construction projects. additionally, a revolving fund for the advanced acquisition of right-of-way was established to minimize future dislocations due to highway construction and reduce the cost of land and clearing it. also, the act authorized funds for a fringe parking demonstration program. many of the provisions of the act were early responses to the concern for environmental quality and for ameliorating the negative effects of highway construction. 74 "continuing" urban transportation planning by 1968 most urbanized areas had completed or were well along in their 3c planning process. the federal highway administration turned its attention to the "continuing" aspect of the planning process. in may 1968, im 50-4-68, "operations plans for continuing" urban transportation planning" was issued. the im required the preparation of an operations plan for continuing transportation planning in these areas. the objective was to maintain the responsiveness of planning to the needs of local areas and to potential changes (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1968). the operations plans were to address the various items needed to perform continuing planning, including: the organizational structure; scope of activities and the agencies that were responsible; a description of the surveillance methodology to identify changes in land development and travel demand; a description of land use and travel forecasting procedures; and work remaining on the ten basic elements of the 3c planning process (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1968). guidelines were provided identifying the five elements considered essential for a continuing planning process. (figure 8) the "surveillance, element focused on monitoring changes in the area in development, sociodemographic characteristics, and travel. "reappraisal, dealt with three levels of review of the transportation forecasts and plan to determine if they were still valid. every five years the plan and forecast were to be updated to retain a 20-year time horizon. the third element, "service," was to assist agencies in the implementation of the plan. the "procedural development element emphasized the need to upgrade analysis techniques. last was the publication of an "annual report" on these activities as a means of communicating with local officials and citizens (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1968). 75 click here for graphic. 76 extensive training and technical assistance was provided by the fhwa to shift urban transportation planning into a continuing mode of operation. intergovernmental cooperation act of 1968 section 204 of the demonstration cities and metropolitan act was the forerunner of much more extensive legislation, adopted in 1968, designed to coordinate federal grant-in-aid programs at federal and state levels. the intergovernmental cooperation act of 1968 required that federal agencies notify the governors or legislatures of the purpose and amounts of any grants-in-aid to their states. the purpose of this requirement was to make it possible for states to plan more effectively for their overall development (washington center, 1970). the act required that the areawide planning agency be established under state enabling legislation. it provided that in the absence of substantial reasons to the contrary, federal grants shall be made to general purpose units of government rather than special purpose agencies. the act also transferred administration of these intergovernmental coordination requirements from hud to the bureau of the budget. bureau of the budget's circular no. a-95 to implement the 1968 intergovernmental cooperation act, the bureau of the budget issued circular no. a-95, "evaluation, review, and coordination of federal assistance programs and projects," in july 1969 (bureau of the budget, 1969), which superseded circular no. a- 82 (bureau of the budget, 1967). this circular required that the governor of each state designate a "clearinghouse" at the state level and for each metropolitan area. the function of these clearinghouses was to review and comment on projects proposed for federal-aid in terms of their compatibility 77 with comprehensive plans and to coordinate among agencies having plans and programs that might be affected by the projects. these clearinghouses had to be empowered under state or local laws to perform comprehensive planning in an area (washington center, 1970). the circular established a project notification and review system (pnrs) which specified how the review and coordination process would be carried out and the amount of time for each step in the process. (figure 9) the pnrs contained an "early warning" feature that required that a local applicant for a federal grant or loan notify the state and local clearinghouses at the time it decided to seek assistance. the clearinghouse had 30 days to indicate further interest in the project or to arrange to provide project coordination. this regulation was designed to alleviate the problem many review agencies had of learning of an application only after it had been prepared, and thereby having little opportunity to help shape it (washington center, 1970). circular no. a-95 provided the most definitive federal statement of the process through which planning for urban areas should be accomplished. its emphasis was not on substance but on process and on the intergovernmental linkages required to carry out the process. the various acts and regulations to improve intergovernmental program coordination accelerated the creation of broader multi- functional agencies. at the state level, 39 departments of transportation had been created by 1977. most of the departments had multimodal planning, programming, and coordinating functions. at the local level, there was a growing trend for transportation planning to be performed by comprehensive planning agencies, generally those designated as the a-95 clearinghouse (advisory commission, 1974). 78 click here for graphic. 79 80 chapter 6 the environment and citizen involvement during the decade of the 1960's, the growing concern for environmental quality put considerable pressure on the planning process and its ability to adapt to change. public attention became focused on the issues of air and water pollution; dislocation of homes and businesses; preservation of parkland, wildlife refuges, and historic sites; and the overall ecological balance in communities and their capacity to absorb disruption. moreover, citizens were concerned that changes were being made to their communities without their views being considered. the federal role in these matters, which had begun modestly in previous years, broadened and deepened during this period. citizen participation and the two-hearing process for highways citizen reaction to highway projects usually was most vocal at public hearings. it became clear that citizens could not effectively contribute to a highway decision by the time the project had already been designed. many of the concerns related to the basic issue of whether to build the highway project at all and the consideration of alternative modes of transportation. consequently, in early 1969, the federal highway administration (fhwa) revised policy and procedure memorandum (ppm) 20-8, "public hearings and location approval" (u.s. department of transportation, 1969a). it established a two-hearing process for highway projects, replacing the previous single hearing, which occurred late in the project development process. the first "corridor public hearing" was to be held before the route location decision was made and was designed to afford citizens the opportunity to comment on the need 81 for and location of the highway project. the second "highway design public hearing" was to focus on the specific location and design features. this ppm also required the consideration of social, economic, and environmental effects prior to submission of a project for federal-aid. it was recognized that even a two-hearing process did not provide adequate opportunity for citizen involvement and, worse, provided a difficult atmosphere for dialogue. in late 1969 the basic guidelines for the 3c planning process were amended to require citizen participation in all phases of the planning process from the setting of goals through the analysis of alternatives. consequently, it became the responsibility of the planning agency to seek out public views. national environmental policy act of 1969 the federal government's concern for environmental issues dated back to the passage of the air quality control act of 1955, which directed the surgeon general to conduct research to abate air pollution. through a series of acts since that time, the federal government's involvement in environmental matters broadened and deepened. in 1969 a singularly important piece of environmental legislation was passed, the national environmental policy act of 1969 (nepa). this act presented a significant departure from prior legislation in that it enunciated for the first time a broad national policy to prevent or eliminate damage to the environment. the act stated that it was national policy to "encourage productive and enjoyable harmony between man and his environment." federal agencies were required under the act to use a systematic interdisciplinary approach to the planning and decisionmaking that affected the environment. it also required that an environmental 82 impact statement (eis) be prepared for all legislation and major federal actions that would affect the environment significantly. the eis was to contain information on the environmental impacts of the proposed action, unavoidable impacts, alternatives to the action, the relationship between short-term and long-term impacts, and irretrievable commitments of resources. the federal agency was to seek comments on the action and its impacts from affected jurisdictions and make all information public. the act also created the council on environmental quality to implement the policy and advise the president on environmental matters. environmental quality improvement act of 1970 the environmental quality improvement act of 1970 was passed as a companion to the nepa. it established the office of environmental quality under the council of environmental quality. the office was charged with assisting federal agencies in evaluating present and proposed programs, and with promoting research on the environment. these two acts dealing with the environment marked the first reversal in over a decade of the trend to decentralize decisionmaking to the state and local levels of government. it required the federal government to make the final determination on the trade-off between facility improvements and environmental quality. further, it created a complicated and expensive process by requiring the preparation of an eis and the seeking of comments from all concerned agencies. in this manner, the acts actually created a new planning process in parallel with the existing urban transportation planning process. 83 nationwide personal transportation study earlier national surveys of travel were limited to automobile and truck use. between 1935 and 1940, and again during the 1950's, a number of states conducted motor vehicle use studies on the characteristics of motor vehicle ownership, users and travel (bostick, messer and steele, 1954; and bostick 1963). during 1961, the u.s. bureau of the census conducted the national automobile use study of 5,000 households for bpr. the survey covered characteristics of motor vehicle ownership and use, and the journey to work. income and other household data were available to relate to the travel and automobile information (bostick, 1966). the nationwide personal transportation study (npts) grew out these efforts and was designed to obtain current information on national patterns of passenger travel. the npts surveyed households covering all person trips by all modes and for all trip purposes. the npts was first conducted in 1969 (dept. of transportation, 1972-1974) and was repeated at approximately seven year intervals (i.e. 1977, 1983, 1990). the first three surveys were conducted by the u.s. bureau of the census for dot using home interviews. the 1990 npts was conducted by a private contractor using computer- assisted telephone interviewing (cati) and random digit dialing to allow for unlisted telephone numbers. since cati was less expensive than home interviews, the sample size for the npts could be increased to 18,000 households after it had declined from that number in 1977 to 6500 in 1983. mpo's were also allowed to purchase additional npts samples for their areas, and this added 3,800 households. respondents were asked to report in considerable detail on all trips made by household members on the day prior to the interview, and to provide less detail on longer trips made for the previous two-week period. information was also collected on the 84 socioeconomic characteristics if the household, vehicles owned, journey-to-work characteristics, and driving done as a part of the job. the npts provided national statistics on person travel with some disaggregation by standard metropolitan statistical areas (smsa) size groupings. it provided information on average daily travel by household members including trip purpose, mode, trip length, vehicle occupancy, time of day, and day of the week. by comparing successive surveys, the npts quantified a number of important national trends including the significant increase in automobile ownership, declining household size, growth in vmt per household, continuing decline of the work trip fraction of travel, increasing use of light trucks for household travel, and the relative constancy of annual vmt per vehicle even with major increases in vmt per person. (table 3) in terms of modal distribution of travel, the private vehicle share grew steadily while vehicle occupancy declined (liss, 1991). the npts has become a unique and valuable data resource for analyzing the nation's travel patterns. it allowed the tracking of changes in key household travel characteristics and has been used at the federal as well as local levels. clean air act amendments of 1970 the clean air act amendments of 1970 reinforced the central position of the federal government to make final decisions affecting the environment. this act created the environmental protection agency (epa) and empowered it to set ambient air quality standards. required reductions in new automobile emissions were also specified in the act. the act authorized the epa to require states to formulate implementation plans describing how they would achieve and maintain the ambient air quality standards. in 1971 the epa promulgated national ambient air quality standards and proposed regulations on state implementation 85 table 3 nationwide personal transportation study household and travel indicators 1969-90 percent summary statistic 1969 1990 change total population 197.2 million 239.4 million 21 total households 62.5 million 93.3 million 49 total workers 75.8 million 118.3 million 56 total vehicles 72.5 million 165.2 million 128 total annual vmt 775.9 million 1,409.6 million 82 indicator persons per household 3.2 2.6 vehicles per household 1.2 1.8 percent of households: 0 vehicles 20.6 9.2 1 vehicle 48.4 32.8 2 vehicles 26.4 38.4 3+ vehicles 4.6 19.6 vmt per household 12,423 15,100 % work vehicle trips 31.9 26.3 % nonwork vehicle trips 68.1 73.9 % transit trips 3.4 2.2 automobile occupancy 1.9 1.6 86 plans (sips) to meet these standards (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975b). the preparation, submission, and review of the sips occurred outside the traditional urban transportation planning process and, in many instances, did not involve the planning agencies developing transportation plans. this problem became particularly difficult for urban areas that could not meet the air quality standards even with new automobiles that met the air pollution emission standards. in these instances, transportation control plans (tcps) were required that contained changes in urban transportation systems and their operation to effect the reduction in emissions. rarely were these tcps developed jointly with those agencies developing urban transportation plans. it took several years of dialogue between these air pollution and transportation planning agencies to mediate joint plans and policies for urban transportation and air quality. another impact of the environmental legislation, particularly the clean air act, was the increased emphasis on short-term changes in transportation systems. in that the deadline for meeting the ambient air quality standards was fairly short, epa was primarily concerned with actions that could affect air quality in that time frame. the actions precluded major construction and generally focused on low capital and traffic management measures. up to that time, urban transportation planning had been focused on long-range (20 years or more) planning (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975b). boston transportation planning review the results of many urban transportation planning studies called for major expansions of the area's freeway system along with other highway improvements. public transportation was often projected to have a minimal role in the areas future. in these urban 87 transportation plans, many of the highway improvements were to be located in built up areas where they would cause major disruptions and dislocations. as public awareness to social and environmental concerns grew in many urban areas, so too did the opposition to transportation plans that contained recommendations for major expansions of the highway system. when faced with these circumstances, urban areas were forced to reevaluate their plans. the prototype for these reevaluations was the boston transportation planning review (btpr). the long-range plan for the boston region published in 1969 contained recommendations for a comprehensive network of radial and circumferential highways and substantial improvements to the existing mass transportation system. much of the freeway portion of the plan was included as part of the interstate highway system. many of the recommended highways were contained in the earlier 1948 plan, which was typical of urban transportation plans of this period. opposition to the 1969 plan developed even before it was published, especially from the affected communities (humphrey, 1974). governor francis sargent ordered a moratorium on major highway construction in february 1970 shortly after the boston city council had already done so. he announced a major reevaluation of transportation policy for the boston area and created the btpr as an independent entity reporting directly to the governor to address the areas transportation issues. the btpr lasted about 18 months, during which time numerous transportation alternatives were identified and evaluated by an interdisciplinary team of professionals. the work was accomplished in an atmosphere of open and participatory interaction among planners, citizens, and elected officials. the btpr led to the decision made by the governor not to build additional freeways within the boston core. instead, the major 88 emphasis was on a mix of arterials, special purpose highways, and major improvements in the mass transportation system (humphrey, 1974). there were several hallmarks of this new form of the urban transportation planning process, termed by alan altshuler, who chaired the btpr, the "open study." first and foremost was the extensive involvement of professionals, citizens, interest groups and decisionmakers in all aspects of the restudy. second, transit options were evaluated on an equal footing with highway options. third, the restudy focused on both the broader regionwide scale and the finer community level scale. fourth, there was less reliance on computer models for analysis and a more open attitude toward explaining the analytical methodology to the nontechnical participants. fifth, the study used a wider range of evaluation criteria that accounted for more social and environmental factors. sixth, decisionmakers were willing to step in and make decisions at points where the process had reached a stalemate (gakenheimer, 1976 and allen 1985). the btpr occurred at the height of the citizen participation movement in a highly charged atmosphere outside the mainstream of decisionmaking in boston. although it is unlikely that such a study will be repeated elsewhere in the same manner, the btpr has left a permanent impact on urban transportation. the legacy of the btpr has been to demonstrate a more open form of planning and decisionmaking that has greater concern for social and environmental impacts and the opinions of those affected by transportation improvements. urban corridor demonstration program in january 1970, the dot initiated the urban corridor demonstration program to test and demonstrate the concerted use of available highway traffic engineering and transit operations 89 techniques for relieving traffic congestion in radial corridors serving major urban corridors. the program emphasized low-capital intensive improvements rather than new major construction to demonstrate whether relatively inexpensive projects which could be implemented rapidly could play an effective role in relieving urban traffic congestion (alan m. voorhees and assoc., 1974). the program was focused on urbanized areas over 200,000 in population. it utilized existing federal programs for transit facilities and equipment, demonstrations, research and technical studies, and for highway construction, topics, and fringe parking. the demonstration projects use various improvement techniques that were funded under these programs in a coordinated fashion to reduce peak-hour congestion. in july 1970 eleven areas were selected to conduct planning for demonstration projects. an evaluation manual was developed to assist the participating urban areas in developing the experimental design, hypotheses to be tested, and overall evaluation strategy (texas transportation institute, 1972). based on the evaluation plans from these areas, eight were selected to carry out demonstrations, and seven actually conducted them. the projects tested line-haul improvements such as transit priority schemes, traffic engineering techniques and bus service improvements; low- density collection-distribution improvements such as park and ride facilities, demand responsive buses, and shelters; and cbd collection-distribution system improvements such as bus shuttle service and improved transportation terminals. this early attempt to integrate low-capital intensive transit and highway improvement techniques in a concerted manner to improve urban transportation pointed the way to the extensive use of transportation system management approaches in later years. further experimentation on low-capital techniques continued with the establishment of the service and methods demonstration program 90 in 1974. census journey-to-work surveys the decennial census, which is required by the constitution, is the longest time series of u.s. demographic data. the census was first taken in 1790 and broadened in 1810 to include other subjects. interest in the census by transportation planners began in the late 1950's with the advent of comprehensive urban transportation studies and the need for data on sociodemographic characteristics. at that time, the hrb launched the committee on transportation information systems and data requirements to persuade the bureau of the census to include questions on place of work and automobile ownership in the 1960 census. in 1960, the format of the census was changed so that the majority of the population had to only answer a limited set of questions ("short form"), and a sample of the population had to answer a more detailed set of questions (long form). journey-to-work and other transportation-related questions were included on the long form. in the 1960's, the bureau of the census established a small area data advisory committee, which included a number of transportation planners, to assist them in the planning for the 1970 census. transportation planners recognized that the data from the decennial census could be used more broadly for transportation studies because it included most of the traditional variables used in the studies and the journey-to-work question was similar to traditional origin-destination questions. in late 1966, the bureau of the census conducted a census use study in new haven, connecticut. the purpose of the study was to examine the methods and procedures they has developed to facilitate the use of census data by local agencies. fhwa became involved because of their interest in an efficient method of maintaining current urban transportation planning data. a critical problem of the incompatibility of census tracts and traffic analysis zones was 91 solved with the development of geographic coding systems. this permitted residence and work place addresses to be geographically coded to individual city blocks which allowed the census data to be summarized by traffic analysis zone (sword and fleet, 1973). as a result of the pretest, the fhwa funded the bureau of the census to develop the capability to provide special summary tabulations, as the proposed 1970 tabulations would not have satisfied urban transportation study needs. the result was the urban transportation planning package which integrated journey-towork and work place data along with socio-demographic data into an urban areas specific data base that could be used by local planning agencies (sword and fleet, 1973). during the 1970's, the use of the urban transportation planning package in transportation planning was evaluated in preparation for the 1980 census (highway research board, 1971c; transportation research board, 1974c). many of the recommendations were incorporated by the census bureau. these included finer levels of stratification for vehicle ownership, modes and geographic detail, and the addition of travel times to work. by the 1980's, the census journey-to-work survey had become a significant source of data for urban transportation planning. first, since the 1960's rising costs and diminished financial resources forced most urban transportation agencies to forgo large- scale data collection. second, planning agencies were being faced with pressures from decision makers for up-to-date information on which to base their analyses and recommendations. third, improvements in data-based modeling reduced the need for locally conducted surveys, such as home-interview origin-destination studies. fourth, improvements in both the transportation-related questions, and detail and accuracy of geographic coding of data from the 1980 census afforded planners a data base that at least partially filled the void left by the lack 92 of locally-collected data (transportation research board, 1985b). the dot provided technical assistance and training in the use of the 1980 census as they had with the 1970 census (sosslau, 1983). by the early-1980's over 200 mpos had purchased urban transportation planning package tabulations. evaluation of the experience with the package continued (transportation research board, 1984c). a conference on december 9-12, 1984 in orlando, florida, was organized by the trb and sponsored by the dot to review the progress to date and make recommendations for the 1990 census (transportation research board, 1985b). the conference demonstrated the central role that census data has achieved in urban transportation planning. fhwa analyzed the nationwide changes in population, journey-to-work patterns, mode of travel to work and vehicle availability occurring between the 1960, 1970 and 1980 censuses (briggs, et. al., 1986). further analyses were conducted under the national commuting study which was sponsored by ten organizations including aashto, the highway users federation for safety and mobility, institute of transportation engineers, and the urban land institute (pisarski, 1987a). the study distilled three primary trends over this twenty-year period from analyses of the data. first was "the worker boom," which was a dramatic increase in the number of workers, and therefore in the number of work-trips commuters, in excess of population growth. the increase in workers was due to entrance of "baby boomers" into the work force and the huge increase in the number of women entering the work force. second was "the suburban commuting boom," which was due to the large number of jobs that located in the suburbs. this resulted in suburb-to-suburb commuting becoming the dominant commuting pattern. third was "the private vehicle boom," in which private vehicles per capita almost 93 doubled during this period. work travel by private vehicles increased from 70 to 85 percent of all work travel (pisarski, 1987a). these trends clearly indicated that major changes had occurred in work travel and that these changes would continue for the foreseeable future. the census journey-to-work became a significant source of travel data both at the national level, and for state and local planning. at the national level, this data set increased in value with each addition to the series. at the local level, census data became more important as changes were made to improve its usefulness for urban transportation planning, and as cost constraints precluded collection of new data. 94 chapter 7 beginnings of multimodal urban transportation planning by 1970, there were 273 urbanized areas actively engaged in continuing urban transportation planning. (figure 10) by then, however, the urban transportation planning process was receiving criticism on a number of issues. it was criticized for inadequate treatment of the social and environmental impacts of transportation facilities and services. the planning process had still not become multimodal and was not adequately evaluating a wide range of alternatives. planning was focused almost exclusively on long- range time horizons, ignoring more immediate problems. and, the technical procedures to carry out planning were criticized for being too cumbersome, time-consuming, and rigid to adapt to new issues quickly. there was also concern expressed about their theoretical validity. during the early 1970's actions were taken to address these criticisms. legislation was passed that increased the capital funds available for mass transportation and provided federal assistance for operating costs. greater flexibility was permitted in the use of some highway funds including their use on transit projects. these provisions placed transit on a more equal footing with highways and considerably strengthened multimodal planning and implementation. in addition, the federal government took steps to better integrate urban transportation planning at the local level, and to require shorter-range capital improvement programs along with long-range plans. emphasis was placed on non-capital intensive measures to reduce traffic congestion as alternatives to major construction projects. and, state highway agencies were required to develop procedures for addressing social, economic, and environmental impacts of highways. 95 click here for graphic. 96 urban mass transportation assistance act of 1970 the urban mass transportation assistance act of 1970 was another landmark in federal financing for mass transportation. it provided the first long-term commitment of federal funds. until the passage of this act, federal funds for mass transportation had been limited. it was difficult to plan and implement a program of mass transportation projects over several years because of the uncertainty of future funding. the 1970 act implied a federal commitment for the expenditure of at least $10 billion over a 12-year period to permit confident and continuing local planning and greater flexibility in program administration. the act authorized $3.1 billion to finance urban mass transportation beginning in fiscal year 1971. it permitted the use of "contract authority" whereby the secretary of transportation was authorized to incur obligations on behalf of the united states with congress pledged to appropriate the funds required to liquidate the obligations. this provision allowed long-term commitments of funds to be made. this act also established a strong federal policy on transportation for elderly and handicapped persons: "... elderly and handicapped persons have the same right as other persons to utilize mass transportation facilities and services; that special efforts shall be made in the planning and design of mass transportation facilities and services so that the availability to elderly and handicapped persons to mass transportation which they can effectively utilize will be assured.... " (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979b) the act authorized that 2 percent of the capital grant and 1.5 percent of the research funds might be set aside and used to finance programs to aid elderly and handicapped persons. 97 the act also added requirements for public hearings on the economic, social, and environmental impacts of a proposed project and on its consistency with the comprehensive plan for the area. it also required an analysis of the environmental impacts of the proposed project and for the secretary of transportation to determine that there was no feasible or prudent alternative to any adverse impact that might result. federal-aid highway act of 1970 the federal-aid highway act of 1970 established the federal-aid urban highway system. the system in each urban area was to be designed to serve major centers of activity and to serve local goals and objectives. routes on the system were to be selected by local officials and state departments cooperatively. this provision significantly increased the influence of local jurisdictions in urban highway decisions. the influence of local officials in urban areas was further strengthened by an amendment to section 134 on urban transportation planning: "no highway project may be constructed in any urban area of 50,000 population or more unless the responsible local officials of such urban area ... have been consulted and their views considered with respect to the corridor, the location and the design of the project" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1980a). funds for the federal-aid urban system were to be allocated to the states on the basis of total urban population within the state. the act also authorized the expenditure of highway funds on exclusive or preferential bus lanes and related facilities. this could only be done if the bus project reduced the need for additional highway construction or if no other highway project could provide the person-carrying capacity of the bus project. there had to be assurances, as well, that the transit operator would utilize the facility. an additional provision of the act 98 authorized expenditures of highway funds on fringe and corridor parking facilities adjacent to the federal-aid urban system that were designed in conjunction with public transportation services. this act also incorporated a number of requirements related to the environment. one required the issuance of guidelines for full consideration of economic, social, and environmental impacts of highway projects. a second related to the promulgation of guidelines for assuring that highway projects were consistent with sips developed under the clean air act. as a result of the 1970 highway and transit acts, projects for both modes would have to meet similar criteria related to impact assessment and public hearings. the highway act also increased the federal matching share to 70 percent for all non-interstate highways, making it comparable to the 66-2/3 percent federal share for mass transportation capital projects. in addition, the highway act legally required consistency between sips and urban highway plans. conference on urban commodity flow the urban transportation planning processes and methodologies that had been developed through the decade of the 1960's emphasized passenger movement. little attention was given to the problems of commodity movements in urban areas. the majority of studies of urban goods movement had been limited to those related to trucks. data on commodity movements was seldom collected because of the difficulty in tracking the movements and the lack of available methods (chappell and smith, 1971). in recognition of the need for more information and better planning concerning the movement of goods in urban areas, a conference on urban commodity flow was convened at airlie house in warrentown, virginia on december 6-9, 1970. initially, the 99 conference was to focus on information and techniques to forecast urban commodity movement. but, as planning for the conference progressed, there emerged a need for a more fundamental understanding of commodity movements and the economic, social, political and technological forces that affected them (highway research board, 1971a). the conference revealed the lack of information on urban goods movement and the need for such information to make informed policy decisions on investment and regulation. the various viewpoints on the problems of urban commodity flow were explored. planners, shippers, government agencies, freight carrier, and citizens saw the problems and consequences differently. with so many actors, the institutional issues were considered to be too complex to mount effective strategies to address the problems (highway research board, 1971a). the conferees concluded that goods movement needed more emphasis in the urban transportation planning process and that techniques for forecasting goods movement needed to be developed. the regulations and programs of federal, state and local agencies needed to be coordinated to avoid conflicting effects on the goods movement industry that were not in the best interest of the public. greater efforts were called for to explore means of reducing the economic, social, and environmental costs of goods movement in urban areas (highway research board, 1971b). this conference directed attention to the neglect of goods movement in the urban transportation planning process, and the complexity of the goods movement issue. it generated more interest and research in the subject and focused on the opportunity to develop strategies to deal with urban goods movement problems. 100 mt. pocono conference on urban transportation planning in recognition of the widespread awareness that urban transportation planning had not kept pace with changing conditions, a conference on organization for continuing urban transportation planning was held at mt. pocono, pennsylvania, in 1971. the focus of this conference was on multimodal transportation planning evolving from the earlier conferences that had focused on highway planning and the separation between planning and implementation (highway research board, 1973a). the conference recommended close coordination of planning efforts as a means of achieving orderly development of urban areas and relating the planning process more closely to decisionmaking processes at all levels of government. it urged that urban planning be strengthened through state enabling legislation and bolstered by equitable local representation. further, citizen participation should occur continually throughout the planning process but should not be considered as a substitute for decisionmaking by elected officials (advisory commission, 1974). all comprehensive and functional planning, including multimodal transportation planning, should be integrated, including the environmental impact assessment process. the planning process should continually refine the long-range regional transportation plan at the sub-area scale and focus on a 5- to 15-year time frame so that planning would be more relevant to programming and project implementation. transportation planning should consider service levels consistent with local goals, and a wide range of alternatives should be evaluated. the impact of changes in the transportation system should be monitored to improve future decisionmaking and planning efforts (advisory commission, 1974). the conference report went on to urge that this more inclusive kind of planning be supported by flexible funding from the federal 101 government. this was to be done to avoid a preference for any mode so as not to unbalance specific urban transportation decisions contrary to local goals and priorities. the conference also supported additional resources for planning, research and training. dot initiatives toward planning unification the u.s. department of transportation had been working for several years on integrating the individual modal planning programs. in 1971, the dot established a trial program of intermodal planning in the field. the overall objective of the program was to integrate the modal planning programs at the urban-area level rather than at the federal level. with the successful completion of the trial program, the dot implemented the program on a permanent basis by establishing intermodal planning groups (ipgs) in each of the 10 dot regions. the ipgs were charged with responsibility for obtaining and reviewing an annual unified work program for all transportation planning activities in an urban area; for obtaining agreement on a single recipient agency for areawide transportation planning grants in each urban area; and, for obtaining a short-term (3- to 5-year) transportation capital improvement program, updated annually, from each recipient agency (u.s. dept. of transportation and u.s. dept. of housing and urban development, 1974). also in 1971 a dot transportation planning committee was established to promote a coordinated department-wide process for urban area and statewide transportation planning and for unified funding of such planning. as a result of the efforts of the committee, a dot order was issued in 1973 that required that all urbanized areas submit annual unified work programs for all transportation planning activities as a condition for receiving any dot planning funds. these work programs had to include all transportation-related planning activities, identification of the 102 agency responsible for each activity, and the proposed funding sources. the work programs were used to rationalize planning activities and joint funding under the dot planning assistance programs (u.s. dept. of transportation and u.s. dept. of housing and urban development, 1974). process guidelines for highway projects the federal-aid highway act of 1970 required that guidelines be issued to assure that possible adverse economic, social, and environmental effects were considered in developing highway projects and that decisions on these projects were made in the best overall public interest. initially guidelines were developed specifying requirements and procedures for evaluating the effects in each of the impact areas. these guidelines were presented and discussed at a highway research board workshop during july 1971 in washington, d.c. the primary conclusion of the workshop was that full consideration of adverse impacts and of decisions in the best overall public interest could not be assured by extensive technical standards. it would depend upon the attitudes, capabilities, organization, and procedures of the highway agencies responsible for developing the projects (u.s. congress, 1972a). based on the workshop recommendations and other comments, the emphasis of the guidelines was shifted to the process used in developing highway projects. in september 1972 fhwa issued ppm 90- 4, "process guidelines (economic, social, and environmental effects of highway projects)" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1972a). these guidelines required each state to prepare an action plan spelling out the organizational arrangement, the assignment of responsibilities, and the procedures to be followed in developing projects in conformance with the law. the action plan had to address the process for the identification of social, economic, and environmental impacts, considerations of alternative courses of action, use of a systematic interdisciplinary approach, 103 and the involvement of other agencies and the public. flexibility was provided to the states to develop procedures which were adjusted to their own needs and conditions. the use of process guidelines was a further evolution of the manner in which highway projects were developed. the staffs of highway agencies were exposed to the views of other agencies and the public. professionals with skills in the social and environmental areas were brought into the process. gradually, the project development process became more open and embraced a broader range of criteria in reaching decisions. umta's external operating manual with the passage of the urban mass transportation assistance act of 1970, the federal transit grant program substantially increased from less than $150 million annually before 1970 to over $500 million by 1972 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977b). it was anticipated that both the level of funding and number of projects to be administered would further increase. in august 1972 umta issued its first consolidated guidance for project management in its external- operating manual (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1972c). the external operating manual contained general information on umta's organization and programs. it provided potential applicants with information on preparing an application for federal assistance, and the statutory criteria and program analysis guidelines umta would use in evaluating the applications. it also contained policies and procedures for administering projects. the manual stated that the near-term objectives that umta sought to achieve with the federal transit program were: increasing the mobility of non-drivers, relief of traffic congestion, and 104 improving the quality of the urban environment. these objectives were related to urban areas of three size groups: small areas under 250,000 in population, medium areas between 250,000 and 1,000,000 in population, and large areas over 1 million in population. for small areas, the primary objective was for the mobility of the transit dependent. in addition, for medium areas the use of non- capital intensive (i.e. transportation system management) strategies to reduce traffic congestion was emphasized. additionally, for large areas, analysis of alternative transportation schemes including non-capital intensive strategies and new technologies was emphasized to support land development patterns (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1972c). included as appendix 2 of the manual was the urban mass transportation planning requirements guide which set forth the areawide planning requirements for the transit program. these requirements were certified by hud designed to be consistent with the 3c planning requirements of the fhwa. an urban area needed to have: a legally established planning agency representing local units of government; a comprehensive, continuing areawide planning process; and a land use plan to serve as the basis for determining travel demand. the transportation planning requirements, which were certified by umta, included: a long-range transportation planning process, a 5- 10 year transit development program, and a short-range program. the agency conducting the transportation planning was to be, wherever possible, the agency carrying out the comprehensive planning. an area could meet the planning requirements on an interim basis, until july 1, 1972, if it had a planning process underway, but received only a 50 percent federal share for its transit project instead of the two-thirds share if the requirement was fully met. the external operating manual was revised through 1974 but was 105 updated and supplemented in later years with umta circulars, notices, and regulations (kret and mundle, 1982). the planning requirements contained in the manual were superseded by the joint fhwa/umta urban transportation planning regulations (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975a). williamsburg conference on urban travel forecasting by the latter part of the 1960's use of the conventional urban travel forecasting procedures pioneered in the late 1950's and early 1960's was widespread but criticism of them was growing. critics argued that conventional procedures were time-consuming and expensive to operate and required too much data. the procedures had been designed for long-range planning of major facilities and were not suitable for evaluation of the wider range of options that were of interest, such as low-capital options, demand-responsive systems, pricing alternatives, and vehicle restraint schemes. policy issues and options had changed, but travel demand forecasting techniques had not. these issues were addressed at a conference on urban travel demand forecasting held at williamsburg, virginia, in december 1972, sponsored by the highway research board and the u.s. department of transportation. the conference concluded that there was a need for travel forecasting procedures that were sensitive to the wide range of policy issues and alternatives to be considered, quicker and less costly than conventional methods, more informative and useful to decisionmakers, and in a form that nontechnical people could understand. further, that improvements in methodology were urgently needed, and that significant improvements in capabilities could be achieved within three years based on the results of available research (brand and manheim, 1973). the conference recommended several simultaneous paths to improve travel forecasting capabilities. first was to upgrade existing 106 methodology with the results of recent research. second was to pilot test emerging procedures in several urban areas. third, was research to improve the understanding of travel behavior including before/after studies, consumer theory, psychological theory, and location behavior. fourth, research was needed to transform the results of travel behavior research into practical forecasting techniques. fifth, a two-way dissemination program was necessary to get new methods into the field and for the results of these applications to flow back to the researchers to improve the methods (brand and manheim, 1973). the conferees were optimistic that the conversion to new, improved behavioral methods was soon to be at hand. they did recognize that a substantial amount of research was going to be necessary. and in fact the williamsburg conference did launch a decade of extensive research and activity in disaggregate urban travel demand forecasting. federal-aid highway act of 1973 the federal-aid highway act of 1973 contained two provisions that increased the flexibility in the use of highway funds for urban mass transportation in the spirit of the mt. pocono conference. first, federal-aid urban system funds were to be used for capital expenditures on urban mass transportation projects. this provision took effect gradually, but was unrestricted starting in fiscal year 1976. second, funds for interstate highway projects could be relinquished and replaced by an equivalent amount from the general fund and spent on mass transportation projects in a particular state. the relinquished funds reverted back to the highway trust fund. this opening up of the highway trust fund for urban mass transportation was a significant breakthrough sought for many years by transit supporters. these changes provided completely 107 new avenues of federal assistance for funding urban mass transportation. the 1973 act had other provisions related to urban mass transportation. first, it raised the federal matching share for urban mass transportation capital projects from 66-2/3 percent to 80 percent, except for urban system substitutions, which remain at 70 percent. second, it raised the level of funds under the umta capital grant program by $3 billion, to $6.1 billion. third, it permitted expenditure of highway funds for bus-related public transportation facilities, including fringe parking on all federal- aid highway systems. the act called for realigning all federal-aid systems based on functional usage. it authorized expenditures on the new federal-- aid urban system and modified several provisions related to it. "urban" was defined as any area of 5,000 or more in population. apportioned funds for the system were earmarked for urban areas of 200,000 or more population. most important, it changed the relationship between the state and local officials in designating routes for the system. it authorized local officials in urbanized areas to choose routes with the concurrence of state highway departments (parker, 1977). two additional provisions related directly to planning. for the first time urban transportation planning was funded separately: 1/2 of 1 percent of all federal-aid funds were designated for this purpose and apportioned to the states on the basis of urbanized area population. these funds were to be made available to the metropolitan planning organizations (mpos) responsible for comprehensive transportation planning in urban areas. the 1973 federal-aid highway act took a significant step toward integrating and balancing the highway and mass transportation programs. it also increased the role of local officials in the 108 selection of urban highway projects and broadened the scope of transportation planning by mpos. endangered species act of 1973 the endangered species act of 1973 was enacted to prevent any animal or plant from becoming extinct in the united states. the act prevented the taking of endangered and threatened species of fish, wildlife, and plants, and the critical habitats where they live. the act applied to the loss of, or injury to, endangered species either directly or indirectly through activities that would interfere with their life support system (alan m. voorhees & assoc., 1979). section 4 of the act required the determination of which species were endangered by the secretary of interior with regard to wildlife and plants, and the secretary of commerce with regard to fish. section 7 of the act established a consultative process between any federal agency seeking to carry out a project or action and the appropriate department (either interior or commerce) to determine if there would be an adverse impact on any endangered species. the determination was to be made in the form of a biological opinion based on the best scientific and commercial data available. if the biological opinion found that an endangered species or its habitat was in jeopardy, the act required that reasonable and prudent alternatives be proposed by the department of commerce or interior respectively. where the federal agency could not comply with the proposed alternatives, the project or action could not proceed (ryan and emerson, 1986). the 1978 amendments to the act established the endangered species committee which was authorized to grant exemptions from requirements of the act. this provision was a response to the decision by the u.s. supreme court to uphold blockage of the completion of the tennessee valley authority's tellico dam because 109 it endangered a small fish called the snail darter (salvesen). in 1982, the act was again amended to allow for incidental takings of wildlife under certain conditions. for example, development could occur in the habitat of an endangered species if the development mitigated any adverse impacts of the species. this mitigation typically took the form of setting aside part of the site for a wildlife preserve, and by a finding that the development would not appreciably reduce the likelihood of the survival and recovery of the species in the wild (salvesen). the endangered species act has been called the most powerful land use law in the nation. by 1990, there were about 500 plant and animal species listed as endangered or threatened in the united states, and with more being added to the list each year. in the future, the act will affect many more development activities. aashto policy on geometric design of urban highways by 1966, the 1957 edition of a policy on arterial highways in urban areas had become partially obsolete as a result of the changing demands placed upon the urban transportation system (american association of state highway officials, 1957). the american association of state highway and transportation officials (aashto) (the name was changed in 1973) began a seven year effort to update and considerably expanded this policy. the new edition was reissued as a policy on design of urban highways and arterial streets-1973 (american association of state highway and transportation officials, 1973). in addition to updated material on highway design, the policy contained two new sections on transportation planning and highway location not previously included in aashto policies. the material on transportation planning included a brief review of alternative organizational approaches, elements of an planning process, and 110 steps in the process including data collection, forecasting, evaluation, surveillance and reappraisal. the information closely paralleled the guidance provided by fhwa in ppm 50-9 and im 50-468, and the technical guidance documented in their various manuals on the 3c planning process. the section on highway location covered social and environmental effects of urban highway developments, community participation, and economic and environmental evaluation. the new material on highway design included design guidance for mass transit especially for buses on arterial streets and freeways. the a policy on design of urban highways and arterial streets-1973 attempted to show that the planning, location and design of a highway were not three distinct independent processes but rather a coordinated effort by planners, locators, and designers. in 1984, aashto issued a policy on geometric design of highways and streets -1984 which combined updated, and replaced the 1973 urban policy and 1965 rural policy in addition to several others (american association of state highway and transportation officials, 1984). this 1984 edition did not include the material from the 1973 urban policy on transportation planning and highway location but instead referenced it. 1972 and 1974 national transportation studies although urban transportation planning had been legislatively required for over a decade, the results had not been used in the development of national transportation policy. beyond that, a composite national picture of these urban transportation plans did not exist even though they were the basis for capital expenditure decisions by the federal government. in the early 1970's, the department of transportation conducted two national transportation studies to inventory and assess the current and planned transportation system as viewed by the states and urban areas. 111 the two studies differed in their emphasis. the 1972 national transportation study obtained information on the existing transportation system as of 1970, the transportation needs for the 1970-1990 period, and short-range (1974-1978) and long-range (1979- 1990) capital improvement programs under three federal funding assumption (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1972b). the study showed that the total transportation needs of the states and urban areas exceeded the financial resources of the nation to implement them and discussed the use of low-capital alternatives to improve the productivity of the existing transportation system, particularly in urban areas. the 1974 national transportation study related more closely to the ongoing urban transportation planning processes (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975). it obtained information on the 1972 inventories, long-range plans (1972-1990), and short-range programs (1972-1980) for the transportation system in a more comprehensive manner than did the 1972 study. the transportation system for all three periods was described in terms of the supply of facilities, equipment, and services, travel demand, system performance, social and environmental impacts, and capital and operating costs. information on low-capital alternatives and new technological systems was also included. the 1972-1980 program was based on a forecast of federal funds that could reasonably be expected to be available and an estimate of state and local funds for the period (weiner, 1974). this study again demonstrated that the long-range plans were overly ambitious in terms of the financial resources that might be available for transportation. further, it showed that even after the expenditure of vast amounts of money for urban transportation, urban transportation systems would differ little in character in the foreseeable future (weiner, 1975b). the national transportation study process introduced the concept of tying state and urban transportation planning into national 112 transportation planning and policy formulation. it stressed multimodal analysis, assessment of a wide range of measures of the transportation system, realistic budget limitations on plans and programs, and increasing the productivity of the existing transportation system. although these concepts were not new, the national transportation studies marked the first time that they had been incorporated into such a vast national planning effort (weiner, 1976a). national mass transportation assistance act of 1974 the national mass transportation assistance act of 1974 authorized for the first time the use of federal funds for transit operating assistance. it thereby continued the trend to broaden the use of federal urban transportation funds and provide state and local officials more flexibility. this act was the culmination of a major lobbying effort by the transit industry and urban interests to secure federal operating assistance for transit. the act authorized $11.8 billion over a 6-year period. under the section 5 formula grant program, almost $4 billion was to be allocated to urban areas by a formula based on population and population density. the funds could be used for either capital projects or operating assistance. the funds for areas over 200,000 in population were attributable to those areas. the funds were to be distributed to "designated recipients" jointly agreed to by the governor, local elected officials and operators of publicly-owned mass transportation services. for areas under 200,000 in population, the governor was designated to allocate the funds. of the remaining $7.8 billion, $7.3 billion was made available for capital assistance at the discretion of the secretary of transportation, under the section 3 discretionary grant program, and the remainder was for rural mass transportation. funds used 113 for capital projects were to have an 80 percent federal matching share. operating assistance was to be matched 50 percent by the federal government (u.s. dept. of transportation 1976). section 105(g) of the act required applicants for transit projects to meet the same planning statute as section 134 of the highway act. finally, highway and transit projects were subject to the same long-range planning requirement. although many urbanized areas already had a joint highway/transit planning process, this section formalized the requirement for multimodal transportation planning. the act also required transit systems to charge elderly and handicapped persons fares that were half regular fares when they traveled in off-peak hours. this was a further condition to receiving federal funds. the act created a new section 15 that required the department of transportation to establish a data reporting system for financial and operating information and a uniform system of accounts and records. after july 1978 no grant could be made to any applicant unless they were reporting data under both systems. planpac and utps batteries of computer programs the computer programs developed and maintained by bpr during the 1960's were essential to most urban transportation planning studies which generally did not have the time and resources to develop their own programs. the battery had been written for most part by the u.s. bureau of standards and consisted of 60 single purpose computer programs. toward the end of the decade of the 1960's, new batteries of computer programs were being developed for transportation planning for the recently introduced third generation of computers, the ibm 360 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977a). 114 the highway planning package, known as planpac, was rewritten to take advantage of the new capabilities of these computers. most highway agencies were acquiring ibm 360's for their own computer installations and would soon be able to use the new computers. planpac included computer programs to analyze survey data, develop and apply trip generation relationships, calibrate and apply trip distribution models, perform traffic assignment, evaluate networks, and for plotting and utility programs to handle data sets (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977a). new programs continued to be written and added to planpac. in 1974 the fhwa completed a reorientation of the package. many of the programs in planpac that were not associated with the traditional four-step urban travel forecasting process were shifted to backpac. these included computer programs for traffic signal optimization, parking studies, highway capacity analysis, carpool matching, micro traffic analysis, land-use forecasting and freeway management. this resulted in 59 programs being retained in planpac and 244 programs being included in backpac. a battery of computer programs for transit system planning was also developed during the mid 1960's by the u.s. department of housing, and urban development which administered the federal transit program at that time. the battery was first written for the ibm 7090/94 computers and consisted of 11 multi-purpose programs. about 1973 umta assumed responsibility for the hud transit planning package and released an enhanced version for the ibm 360 as the umta transportation planning system (utps). the programs were designed for network analysis, travel demand estimation, sketch planning and data manipulation. the programs were compatible and communicated through a common data base. in 1976 the fhwa decided not to perform any further developments for planpac but instead join with umta to support the utps package whose name was changed to urban transportation planning system. 115 fhwa did make a commitment to maintain and support planpac as long as users needed it. the first release of the umta/fhwa multimodal utps was in 1976. a 1979/80 release provided additional capabilities and contained 20 programs. the development and support of computer programs by fhwa and umta substantially assisted urban transportation planning studies in performing their various analytical and planning functions. these computer batteries facilitated the use of conventional planning techniques and furthered this style of urban transportation planning. 116 chapter 8 transition to short-term planning as planning for the interstate highway system was being completed, attention turned to increasing the productivity and efficiency of existing facilities. in planning for major new regional transportation facilities, many urban areas had neglected maintaining and upgrading other facilities. however, environmental concerns, the difficulty of building inner city freeways, renewed interest in urban mass transit and the energy crisis gave added impetus to the focus on more immediate problems. signs were becoming evident of the changing emphasis to shorter term time horizons and the corridor level in transportation planning. gradually, planning shifted towards maximizing the use of the existing system with a minimum of new construction. further, the connection was strengthened between long-term planning and the programming of projects (weiner, 1982). emergency energy legislation in october 1973, the organization of petroleum exporting countries (opec) embargoed oil shipments to the united states and, in doing so, began a new era in transportation planning. the importance of oil was so paramount to the economy and, in particular, the transportation sector that oil shortages and price increases gradually became one of the major issues in transportation planning. the immediate reaction to the oil embargo was to address the specific emergency. president nixon signed the emergency petroleum allocation act of 1973 in november of that year which established an official government allocation plan for gasoline and home heating fuel. it regulated the distribution of refined 117 petroleum products by freezing the supplier-purchaser relationships and specifying a set of priority users. the act also established price controls on petroleum. it gave the president authority to set petroleum prices, not to exceed $7.66 a barrel. this authority was to terminate on september 30, 1981. the emergency highway energy conservation act, signed on january 2, 1974, established a national 55 miles per hour speed limit to reduce gasoline consumption. it was extended indefinitely on january 4, 1975 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979c). it also provided that federal-aid highway funds could be used for ridesharing demonstration programs. as the immediate crisis abated, the focus shifted to longer-term actions and policies to reduce the nation's dependence on oil, especially imported oil. the energy policy and conservation act of 1975 was passed by congress to ensure that automobile gasoline consumption would be reduced to the lowest level possible and to promote energy conservation plans. as directed, the u.s. department of transportation through the national highway traffic safety administration (nhtsa) promulgated regulations that required the corporate average fuel economy (cafe) be raised from 18.0 miles per gallon in 1978 to 27.5 in 1985 and beyond (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979c). reaction to the energy crisis of 1973/1974 evolved slowly at the local level as information and analysis tools gradually appeared. most local planning agencies knew little about energy consumption and conservation and needed to learn about this new issue that had been thrust upon them. it was not until the second crisis in 1979 with fuel shortages and sharply increasing prices that energy issues were thoroughly integrated into urban transportation planning. 118 service and methods demonstrations program the focus in transportation planning and development was shifting to shorter-term, low-capital improvements in the early 1970's. many of these improvements, which were grouped under the term "transportation system management" (tsm) techniques, were only in the conceptual stage or in limited applications in the united states and other countries. there was a need to perform the final steps of evaluation and development, where necessary, to bring these new improvement strategies into operational practice. the service and methods demonstrations (smd) program was established in 1974 to promote the development, demonstration, evaluation, and widespread adoption of innovative transit services and transportation management techniques throughout the united states. the program focused on concepts that used existing technology to create improvements that require relatively low levels of capital investment and that can be implemented within a short time frame. the concepts were demonstrated in real-world operational environments and evaluated to determine their costs, impacts, and implementation characteristics. evaluation, findings were widely disseminated to transportation planners, policy makers, and transit operators (spear, 1979). the smd program began with six demonstrations involving specialized transportation for the elderly and handicapped, double-deck buses, and priority lanes for highway occupancy vehicles. by 1978 the program was sponsoring 59 ongoing demonstrations, evaluating 31 special case study projects, and had begun a cooperative program with the fhwa to evaluate another 17 projects in the national ridesharing demonstration program. projects were divided into four program areas. first, under conventional service improvements, projects concentrated on improving productivity, reliability, and effectiveness with such 119 techniques as priority treatment for buses and other high occupancy vehicles, route restructuring, auto restricted zones, and articulated buses. in the second category of pricing and service innovation were projects on fare payment strategies, fare integration, fare change strategies, service changes, and parking pricing. the third category of paratransit services contained projects on ridesharing, brokerage, and taxicabs. fourth, transportation services for special user groups focused on accessible bus services, user-side subsidies, coordination of social service agency transportation, and rural public transportation (spear, 1981). the service and methods demonstration program made a major contribution to the identification, evaluation, and dissemination of transportation system management techniques. this effort accelerated the introduction and adoption of innovative approaches to the provision of public transportation service. it also spurred experimentation with new public transportation service concepts by other agencies at the state and local levels. ota's report on automated guideway transit by the time the report tomorrow's transportation: new systems for the urban future (cole, 1968) was published in 1968, umta barely had a research program in the area of new urban transit technologies. a small grant had been made for development of westinghouse's transit expressway and several new system feasibility studies were begun in 1967. by 1970 decisions had been reached to proceed with funding of three major automated guideway transit (agt) demonstration projects - the transpo 72 exhibition and two other demonstrations (u.s. congress, office of technology assessment, 1975). transpo 72 was held at the dulles international airport near washington, d.c. in the spring of 1972. four companies built and 120 operated prototype agt systems for public demonstration. in 1971, umta awarded a grant to the vought corporation to build a group rapid transit (grt) system, airtrans, as the internal circulation system for the dallas-ft. worth airport. service began in 1974. the third grt demonstration connected three separate campuses of west virginia university at morgantown. boeing aerospace company became the manager of the project which was largely based on proposal by alden self-transit systems corporation. public service began in october 1975. the system was expanded with an umta grant and operations began in july 1979 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1983b). by the end of 1975, another 18 systems were in operation or under construction. they were all simple shuttle loop transit (slt) systems at airports, amusement parks, and shopping centers. all were funded with private funds (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1983b). in september 1974, the u.s. senate transportation appropriations committee directed the congressional office of technology assessment (ota) to assess the potential for agt systems. the report, produced in june 1975, was a comprehensive assessment of agt systems and contained five reports from panels of specialists. overall the report concluded that the $95 million spent on agt research and development up to that time by umta had not produced the direct results expected in the form of fully developed systems in urban settings. the ota went further in concluding that insufficient funding was directed at new systems research and that the program needed restructuring with a clarification of objectives (u.s. congress, office of technology assessment, 1975). the ota found that slt systems were promising for specialized urban transportation problems. with regard to the more sophisticated grt systems, the ota found that a number of cities had shown interest but that there were serious technical problems. 121 as to the small vehicle personal rapid transit (prt) systems, only preliminary studies were recommended a major conclusion was that the program emphasized hardware development, but further research was needed on social, economic and environmental impacts. also umta had not developed a mechanism for qualifying new technological systems for capital grants (u.s. congress, office of technology assessment, 1975). in response to the study, umta launched the agt socio-economic research program in 1976. it consisted of assessments of existing agt installations, studies of capital and operating costs, travel market analyses, and an assessment of agt technology compared with other alternatives in urban area application (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1983b). a review of local planning studies conducted under this program found that more than 20 cities had considered agt systems. the conclusion reached was that there was considerable uncertainty with regard to costs, public acceptance, reliability, crime and land use impacts (lee et.al., 1978). planning procedures and data were not available to adequately assess new technological systems as an alternative to conventional urban technologies. also in 1976, umta initiated the downtown people mover (dpm) program. it was designed to demonstrate the application of an slt type system in an urban environment. impact studies were to be conducted to assess the systems with regard to patronage, community acceptance, reliability, maintainability, safety, and economics. four cities were selected for these demonstrations: cleveland, houston, los angeles and st. paul. three other cities were approved for participation using their existing commitments of federal funds: detroit, miami and baltimore (mabee and zumwalt, 1977). detroit and miami have constructed dpms. 122 model 13(c) labor protection agreement for operating assistance section 13(c) was included in the urban mass transportation act of 1964 to protect employees in the transit industry from potential adverse effects of federal transit assistance. at the time, federal assistance was in the form of capital grants and loans that could be used for public acquisition of private operations. a major concern was the loss of collective bargaining rights when employees entered the public sector. section 13(c) required an applicant for federal assistance to make arrangements to protect the interests of employees. employee protection arrangements under section 13(c) included: (1) preservation of rights under existing contracts; (2) continuation of collective bargaining rights; (3) protection of employees against a worsening of their positions; (4) assurances of employment or reemployment for existing employees; and (5) paid training or retraining programs. the secretary of labor was responsible for determining whether these arrangements were fair and equitable. there had been an evolution in the administration of section 13(c) since it was enacted. originally the department of labor (dol) only required a statement that the interests of employees would not be adversely affected by the federal grant. by 1966, however, there had evolved detailed 13(c) agreements that were the result of collective bargaining between grant applicants and the employee representatives. these 13(c) agreements were subject to renegotiation with each new grant. with the passage of the national mass transportation assistance act of 1974, federal funds became available for operating assistance under the section 5 formula grant program. grants for operating assistance were also required to comply with the section 13(c) provisions. to facilitate processing of these operating 123 assistance applications, organized labor, the american public transit association (apta), and the dol developed a national model 13(c) agreement pertaining to such agreements. the model agreement was signed in july 1975 by apta, the amalgamated transit union, and the transport workers union of america. apta established a procedure under which individual transit properties could affiliate themselves with the agreement and, thereby, become eligible for coverage by it for operating assistance applications (lieb, 1976). the model section 13(c) agreement for transit operating assistance reduced the time and effort of individual transit properties and labor representatives to negotiate agreement and accelerated the use of federal funds for operating assistance. joint highway/transit planning regulations the umta and fhwa had worked for several years on joint regulations to guide urban transportation planning. final regulations were issued to take effect in october 1975 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975a). they superseded all previous guidelines, policies, and regulations issued on urban transportation planning by the umta and fhwa. the regulations provided for the joint designation of mpos to carry out planning and required agreements on the division of responsibility where the mpos and a-95 agencies were different. a multiyear prospectus and annual unified work program had to be submitted specifying all transportation-related planning activities for an urban area as a condition for receiving federal planning funds. (figure 11) the urban transportation planning process was required to produce a long-range transportation plan, which had to be reviewed annually to confirm its validity. the transportation plan had to 124 click here for graphic. 125 contain a long-range element and a shorter-range "transportation systems management element" (tsme) for improving the operation of existing transportation systems without new facilities. an appendix to the regulations contained a list of major categories of actions to be considered for inclusion in the tsme. (table 4) the appendix stated that the feasibility and need for the individual actions differed with the size of the urbanized area, but that some actions in each of the categories would be appropriate in for any urbanized area. a multiyear "transportation improvement program" (tip) also had to be developed consistent with the transportation plan. the tip had to include all highway and transit projects to be implemented within the coming five years. it thereby became the linkage between the planning and programming of urban transportation projects. it also brought together all highway and transit projects into a single document that could be reviewed and approved by decision makers. the tip had to contain an "annual element" that would be the basis for the federal funding decisions on projects for the coming year. the regulations provided for a joint annual certification of the planning process. this certification was required as a condition for receiving federal funds for projects. the regulations incorporated previously legislated requirements related to social, economic, and environmental impact analysis, air quality planning, and the elderly and handicapped. these joint regulations applied to all urban highway and transit programs including those for transit operating assistance. they represented the most important action up to that time to bring about multimodal urban transportation planning and programming of projects. they changed the emphasis from long-term planning to shorter range transportation system management, and provided a stronger linkage between planning and programming. these 126 table 4 actions to be considered for inclusion in the transportation system management element actions to ensure the efficient use of existing road space - traffic operations improvements - preferential treatment of transit and high occupancy vehicles - provision for pedestrians and bicycles - management and control of parking - changes in work schedules, fare structures and automobile tolls actions to reduce vehicle use in congested areas - encouragement of carpooling and other forms of ridesharing - diversion, exclusion and metering of automobile access to specific areas - area licenses, parking surcharges and other forms of congestion pricing - establishment of car free zones and closure of selected streets - restrictions of downtown truck deliveries during peak hours actions to improve transit service - provision of better collection, distribution, and internal collection service within low density areas - greater responsiveness and flexibility in routing, scheduling and dispatching of transit vehicles - provision of express services - provision of extensive park and ride services from fringe parking areas - provision of shuttle transit services from cbd fringe parking areas - encouragement of jitneys and other flexible paratransit services and their integration in the transit system - simplified fare collection systems and policies - better passenger information systems and services actions to increase transit management efficiency - improve marketing - develop cost accounting and other management tools to improve decisionmaking - establish maintenance policies that ensure greater equipment reliability - using surveillance and communications technology to develop real time monitoring and control capability 127 regulations were another turning point in the evolution of urban transportation planning that set the tone for the next several years. policy on major urban mass transportation investments the level of federal funds for urban mass transportation had increased dramatically since 1970. however, the requests for federal funds from urban areas outpaced that increase. in particular, there was a resurgence of the conviction that rail transit systems could largely solve the problems of congestion and petroleum dependence while promoting efficient development patterns. consequently, the need to assure that these funds were used effectively and productively became apparent. the umta set forth its views on this issue in the document, preliminary guidelines and background analysis (transportation research board, 1975a). it was prepared for review at a conference on the evaluation of urban transportation alternatives held at airlie house, virginia, in february 1975. the conference was attended by a broad spectrum of persons from all levels of government, the transit industry, consultants, universities, and private citizens. the conference report indicated a number of concerns with the guidelines, which were transmitted to the umta (transportation research board, 1977). with the assistance of the conference findings, the umta developed a draft policy statement to guide future decisions regarding federal assistance in the funding of major mass transportation projects. this proposed policy on major urban mass transportation investments was published in august 1975 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975c). it embodied a number of principles. first, areawide transportation improvement plans should be multimodal and include regionwide and community-level transit 128 services. second, major mass transportation investment projects should be planned and implemented in stages to avoid premature investment in costly fixed facilities and to preserve maximum flexibility to respond to future unknowns. third, full consideration should be given to improving the management and operation of existing transportation systems. fourth, the analysis of alternatives should include a determination of which alternative meets the local areas social, environmental, and transportation goals in a cost effective manner. and fifth, full opportunity should be provided for involvement of the public and local officials in all phases of the planning and evaluation process (transportation research board, 1977). the umta stated that the level of federal funding would be based on a cost-effective alternative that would meet urban area needs and goals in a 5- to 15-year time frame and that was consistent with the long-range transportation plan. a second conference on urban transportation alternative analysis was held in march/april 1976 at hunt valley, maryland. this conference, too, was attended by a broad spectrum of the professional community. there was considerable discussion on several issues including the criteria to be used to measure cost- effectiveness, where the cost-effectiveness analysis fit in the overall planning process and the differences in the project development process between transit and highways (transportation research board, 1977). using the recommendations from the second conference, the umta prepared and published a final policy statement in september 1976 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1976b). although changes in the proposed policy were made, the principles remained basically unchanged. in february 1978, the umta provided further elaboration in its 129 policy toward rail transit (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1978a). it stated that new rail transit lines or extensions would be funded in areas where population densities, travel volumes, and growth patterns indicated the need. preference would be given to corridors serving densely populated urban centers. it reaffirmed the principles of analysis of alternatives, including tsm measures, incremental implementation and cost-effectiveness. the policy added the requirement that the local area had to commit itself to a program of supportive actions designed to improve the cost- effectiveness, patronage, and prospect for economic viability of the investment. this included automobile management policies; feeder service; plans, policies and incentives to stimulate high density private development near stations; and other measures to revitalize nearby older neighborhoods and the central business district. with this policy supplement, rail transit was to become a tool for urban redevelopment. characteristics of urban transportation systems urban transportation planning in the mid 1970's was a more diverse and complex activity compared to the rather uniform process that existed during the mid 1960's. this change was caused by the need to address an expanded list of issues, and was fostered by the issuance of the joint fhwa/umta planning regulations and umta's policy on major urban mass transportation investments (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975a and 1976b). the range of alternatives that had to be evaluated widened to include a fuller consideration of transit system options, transportation system management measures, and traffic engineering improvements. a more thorough assessment of social, economic, environmental, and energy impacts was required. consequently, urban areas were conducting transportation systems evaluations with increasing sophistication that consumed more time and resources. even though there were many sources of information on the 130 characteristics of urban transportation systems and their impacts to facilitate this evaluation process, they were difficult to locate, conflicting, often out of date, and generally local in nature. there was a need to synthesis and codify this data and information so that it would be more accessible. an earlier effort in the 1960's by the institute of traffic engineers, capacities and limitations of urban transportation modes, was more narrowly focused and reflected the range of issues at that time (institute of traffic engineers, 1965). to fill this gap, a handbook was prepared and published in early 1974 under the title, characteristics urban transportation systems (cuts) (sanders and reynen, 1974). cuts was designed as a single reference source containing information of the performance characteristics of urban transportation systems for use in the evaluation of transportation alternatives. the first edition contained data on: rail transit, bus transit, the automobile/ highway system, and pedestrian assistance systems. the seven supply parameters selected were: speed, capacity, operating cost, energy consumption, air pollution and noise, capital cost, and accident frequency. the cuts handbook was periodically updated and expanded. later editions included data on activity center systems as well as the original four modes. labor inputs were added in future editions to the supply parameters reported upon (reno and bixby, 1985). cuts was supplemented with two additional handbooks which provided data on the demand characteristics of urban transportation systems. the first, released in 1977, was traveler response to transportation system changes (pratt, pedersen and mather, 1977). it summarized and synthesized information, primarily from existing literature, on the traveler behavior changes for a wide variety of changes in the transportation system. the initial edition distilled and interpreted data on seven types of transportation changes including: high occupancy vehicle priority facilities, 131 variable working hours, van and buspools, transit scheduling frequency changes, routing changes, transit fare changes and transit marketing. parking and express transit were added in the second edition (pratt and copple, 1981). the second handbook was characteristics of urban transportation demand (cutd) along with a later issued appendix (levinson, 1978 and 1979). the cutd handbook contained data on areawide travel characteristics and typical usage information for rail, bus and highways systems. the data was designed as inputs and cross checks for urban travel forecasting. the appendix contained more detailed city specific and site specific data on travel. the revision to cutd reorganized, integrated and updated the information included in the earlier edition (charles river associates, 1988). these efforts sought to capitalize on the large body of data and experience on urban transportation systems that had been accumulated in the previous two decades and make it more available and accessible to the transportation planning community. it came at a time when the range of information needed for transportation system evaluation had greatly broadened but the resources for collecting new data were contracting. light rail transit in the late 1960's and early 1970's, many urban areas were seeking alternatives to the construction of freeways. san francisco and washington, d.c. had decided to construct heavy rail systems, but many areas did not have the density or potential travel demand to justify such systems. moreover, heavy rail systems had high construction costs and disrupted the areas through which they passed during construction. busways and preferential treatment for buses were being considered as alternatives to high cost fixed guideway systems, particularly in the united states. in europe, 132 especially west germany, light rail transit was the preferred alternative. this european experience renewed interest in light rail systems in the united states (diamant, 1976). in 1971 the san francisco municipal railway (muni) requested bids on 78 new light rail vehicles to replace its deteriorating pcc car fleet. the two bids that were received were rejected as being too costly. about this time, the massachusetts bay transportation authority (mbta) and the southeastern pennsylvania transportation authority (septa) decided to preserve and upgrade their light rail systems. these events provided the opportunity to develop a standard design for common use. the umta authorized a grant to the mbta to develop specifications for a new u.s. standard light rail vehicle (slrv). the first slrvs were built by boeing vertol and tested in 1974 at the umta's test track in pueblo, colorado (silien and mora, 1975). in december 1975 the umta expressed its concern that urban areas should give adequate consideration to light rail transit (lrt) in a policy statement on light rail transit. the umta stated that while it had no modal favorites, the increasing demand for transit capital assistance combined with escalating transit construction costs made it essential that cost effective approaches be fully explored. umta considered lrt as a potentially attractive option for many urban areas and would assist in its deployment in areas where proper conditions existed (transportation systems center, 1977). as interest in lrt grew, a series of conferences was organized to exchange information and explore the technical aspects and applications of lrt. the first conference, held in philadelphia in 1975, had as its objective the reintroduction of lrt to a wide spectrum of decision makers in government, industry and academia (transportation research board, 1975b). in 1977 a second conference in boston addressed the need for a more detailed focus 133 on the theme of planning and technology (transportation research board, 1978). several years later, in 1982, a third conference occurred in san diego with the theme of planning, design, and implementation of lrt in existing urban environments (transportation research board, 1982a). the fourth conference in pittsburgh in 1985 focused on cost-effective approaches in the deployment of lrt systems that capitalized on the flexibility of this mode of transit (transportation research board, 1985a). by 1990 lrv had achieved a substantial resurgence in the united states. boston, cleveland, newark, philadelphia, pittsburgh, and san francisco had renovated existing lines or replaced their existing vehicle fleets or both. (table 5) buffalo, los angeles, portland, sacramento, san diego and san jose, had opened new lrt lines. and new lrt lines were under construction in baltimore, dallas and st. louis. federal-aid highway act of 1976 the federal-aid highway act of 1976 broadened the use of funds from trade-ins of nonessential interstate routes. the process of increasing flexibility in the use of interstate funds began with section 103(e)(2), referred to as the howard-cramer amendment, of the federal-aid highway act of 1968. it allowed withdrawal of a nonessential interstate route and the use of the funds on another interstate route in the state. in the federal-aid highway act of 1973, section 103(e)(4) allowed urbanized areas to withdraw a nonessential interstate segment within an area upon joint request of local elected officials and the governor. an equivalent amount of funds could then be spent from general revenues for mass transportation capital projects at an 80 percent federal matching share. the 1976 act allowed the funds from the interstate substitution to be used also for other highways and busways serving those urbanized areas (bloch, et. 134 table 5 u.s. light rail systems year year line metropolitan-area built modernized kms boston 1897 1975-89 44.9 buffalo 1985 10.0 cleveland 1919 1980's 21.0 los angeles 1990 36.0 newark 1935 1980's 6.7 new orleans 1893 underway 13.1 philadelphia 1892 1981 118.7 pittsburgh 1891 1985 33.0 portland 1986 24.2 sacramento 1987 29.5 san diego 1980 53.4 san francisco 1897 1981 39.9 san jose 1988 32.0 under construction baltimore 36.2 dallas 32.0 st. louis 29.0 135 al. , 1982). the 1976 act also changed the definition of construction to allow federal funds to be expended on resurfacing, restoration, and rehabilitation (3r) of highways. this was done in recognition of the growing problem of highway deterioration. the completion date for the interstate system was extended to september 30, 1990. finally, the act expanded the transferability of federal funds among different federal-aid systems, thereby increasing flexibility in the use of these funds. ite trip generation report in 1972, the technical council of the institute of transportation engineers (ite) formed the trip generation committee do develop a report on trip generation rates. the purpose of the committee was to collect trip generation rate data already measured by others and to compile these data into on common source. the first edition of trip generation, an informational report was published in 1976 and contained data collected between 1965 and 1973 from nearly 80 different sources (institute of transportation engineers, 1976). revised and updated editions were published in 1979, 1983, 1987 and 1991 (institute of transportation engineers, 1979, 1982, 1987 and 1991). the fifth edition of trip generation represented the most comprehensive data base then available on trip generation rates. these data were collected through volunteer efforts and did not represent ite's recommendations on individual rates or preferred application of the data. the fifth edition contained trip generation rates for a 121 land uses categories from over 3,000 studies. many categories, however, contained a limited number of studies. rates were given for several different variables of a project including floor area, employment, and acreage, as well as for several time periods. in earlier editions of the report, trip 136 rates were given in the form of cells of a series of matrices. starting with the fourth edition, rates were calculated using regression equations. the ite trip generation reports became the most widely used reference for trip generation data by traffic engineers and transportation planners for site level planning and analysis. at times the trip generation report was used as an expedient when a site specific analysis would have been more appropriate. urban system study the joint highway/transit planning regulations were controversial during their preparation and after their issuance. the states contended that the federal requirement to create metropolitan planning organizations (mpos) with the responsibility to program funds preempted the states' right of self-determination. in essence they argued that mpos were another level of government. those at the local level of government were more supportive of the regulations, especially the greater authority to select projects and program funds. but, there was widespread concern that the planning and programming process had become too inflexible and cumbersome (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1976a). consequently the federal-aid highway act of 1976 required a study of the various factors involved in the planning, programming, and implementation of routes on the urban system. the study was conducted jointly by the fhwa and umta and submitted to congress in january 1977 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1976a). it was a major undertaking involving a liaison group of 12 organizations representing state and local interests, site visits to 30 urbanized area and field data on the remaining areas. the study concluded that the planning requirements were being carried out responsibly by all participants. this was true in 137 spite of the controversy over the responsibilities of the mpo. they also found that the flexibility in the use of urban system funds for transit was not widely used. only 6.4 percent of the funds were being used for transit projects. it was concluded that overall the complexity of federal requirements deterred many local governments from using their federal urban system funds (heanue, 1977). the study recommended that no changes should be made at that time, the process was new and participants had not had sufficient time to adjust, and that even though there was some confusion and controversy, the process was working properly (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1976a). road pricing demonstration program road pricing had long been discussed as means to manage traffic demand as was used in many other industries to manage demand for services. the basic approach was to increase prices for the use of facilities and service when demand was highest so that those users would either pay the higher cost to be served during the peak or divert to lower demand periods or alternative modes (vickrey, 1959). an extensive research program on the feasibility of road pricing was conducted by the urban institute (kulash, 1974). in an attempt to stimulate the use of road pricing, the u.s. department of transportation began a demonstration program in 1976. secretary of transportation william t. coleman wrote to the mayors of eleven cities about the availability of a road pricing demonstration and offering federal funding for administration enforcement and evaluation of a vehicle licensing scheme inviting their participation (arrillaga, 1978). this approach to road pricing was based on the successful application in the city-state of singapore (watson and holland, 1978). of the cities that responded, three were most promising: madison, 138 wisconsin, berkeley, california; and honolulu, hawaii. these cities seemed most committed to reducing automobile use and to using the resulting revenue to finance transit expansion (higgins, 1986). preliminary studies were conducted for each of the cities. based on these preliminary analyses, all three cities declined to pursue the demonstrations any further. a number of reasons were cited in opposition to the schemes including: harm to business, coercive interference with travel rights, regressive impacts on the poor, and inadequate information dissemination and promotion. more than a decade would pass before there was renewed interest in trying road pricing schemes. this would come under the stimulus of the clean air act and the difficulty some urbanized areas had in meeting national ambient air quality standards. national transportation trends and choices ten years after it was established, the u.s. department of transportation, under secretary william t. coleman, jr., completed its first multimodal national transportation planning study. the report, national transportation trends and choices - to the year 2000, described dot's views regarding the future evolution of transportation, set forth the decisions that needed to be made, and described the changes that would best serve national objectives (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977c). national transportation trends and choices elaborated upon a key policy theme of secretary coleman's statement of national transportation policy: "underlying comprehensive transportation policy is the recognition that diversity and intermodal competition are essential to an effective transportation system. government policy must move in the direction of increasing equal competitive opportunity among the transportation modes, 139 minimizing the inequitable distortions of government intervention and enabling each mode to realize its inherent advantages" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977c). national transportation trends and choices was designed to show the congress and the public that the dot was making both substantive and resource allocation decisions effectively and coherently in light of long-range consequences, intermodal tradeoffs, and broader national goals and objectives. in addition, the planning effort was designed to facilitate decisionmaking within the federal government, and to encourage consistency by state and local agencies and the private sector. this study was intended to initiate a continuing national planning process based on common time horizons and planning assumptions. the needs estimates in national transportation trends and choices were developed for the 15-year period 1976-1990. for highways and public transportation, the estimates were based on updates of the data from the 1974 national transportation report (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975d) which were submitted by only 15 states. the aviation needs estimate were developed by updating the 1976 national airport system plan plus additional analyses. railroad and pipeline needs were estimated based on assumptions developed by the study staff. national transportation trends and choices was received by the congress with little fanfare. however, the thrust of the report towards greater competition and reduced federal regulation was reflected in actions taken in later years. the study did not become the beginning of a longer term national planning effort. transit uniform system of accounts and records transit operating and financial data had been collected by the american public transit association (apta) and its predecessor, 140 the american transit association, since 1942 (american public transit association, 1989). this data had been the primary source of comparative transit information for operators, researchers, and governmental agencies. it had been recognized for some time, however, that this data had limitations in terms of uniformity of data definitions, consistency of reporting, and accuracy. as the involvement of federal, state and local governments increased in funding urban public transportation, particularly operating assistance, the need for a uniform system of accounts and records was recognized (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977d). in 1972, the american transit association (ata) and institute for rapid transit (irt), predecessors of apta, began project fare, uniform financial accounting and reporting elements, to develop a uniform industry data reporting system. project fare developed and pilot tested a new system of accounts and records to meet the needs of the industry and government agencies to monitor operating performance (arthur andersen & co., 1973). shortly thereafter, the urban mass transportation act of 1974 created a new section 15 that required the department of transportation to establish a data reporting system for financial and operating information and a uniform system of accounts and records. umta continued to work with an industry control board to modify and adapt the fare system to accommodate the requirements of section 15. the resulting system was required to be instituted by all recipients of umta section 5 formula grant funds (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977e). the section 15 transit data reporting system was first applied for fiscal year 1979 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1981d). over 400 transit systems reported under the system. data items included those covering revenues, government subsidies, capital and operating costs, organizational structure, vehicles, employees, service provided, ridership, safety, energy consumption, and 141 operating performance. over a period of years, the system underwent a number of modifications to its content, structure and procedures to adjust to changing data requirements. this included broadening the data base to include commuter rail, vanpools, and purchased (contracted) services. clean air act amendments of 1977 the clean air act amendments of 1977 increased the flexibility and local responsibility in the administration of the clean air act. the amendments required state and local governments to develop revisions to state implementation plans (sips) for all areas where the national ambient air quality standards had not been attained. the revised sips were to be submitted to the epa by january 1, 1979, and approved by may 1, 1979. the revised plans had to provide for attainment of national ambient air quality standards by 1982, or in the case of areas with severe photochemical oxidant or carbon monoxide problems, no later than 1987. in the latter case, a state must demonstrate that the standards cannot be met with all reasonable stationary and transportation control measures. the plans also had to provide for incremental reductions in emissions ("reasonable further progress") between the time the plans were submitted and the attainment deadline. if a state failed to submit a sip or if epa disapproved the sip and the state failed to revise it in a satisfactory manner, epa was required to promulgate regulations establishing a sip by july 1, 1979. if, after july 1, 1979, epa determined that a state was not fulfilling the requirements under the act, it was to impose sanctions. this would include stopping federal-aid for highways (cooper and hidinger, 1980). in many major urbanized areas the revised sips required the development of transportation control plans (tcps) that included strategies to reduce emissions from transportation-related sources 142 by means of structural or operational changes in the transportation system. since state and local governments implement changes in the transportation system, the act strongly encouraged the preparation of transportation elements of the sip by metropolitan planning organizations. these local planning organizations were responsible for developing the transportation control measure element of the sip (cooper and hidinger, 1980). from 1978 to 1980, the dot and epa, after long negotiations, jointly issued several policy documents to implement the clean air act's transportation requirements. one of these, signed in june 1978, was a "memorandum of understanding" that established the means by which the dot and the epa would assure the integration of transportation and air quality planning. a second one issued also in june 1978, "transportation air quality planning guidelines" described the acceptable planning process to satisfy the requirements. another, in march 1980, was a notice containing guidelines for receiving air quality planning grants under section 175 of the act (cooper and hidinger, 1980). in january 1981 dot issued regulations on air quality conformance and priority procedures for use in federal highway and transit programs. the regulations required that transportation plans, programs, and projects conform with the approved sips in areas that had not met ambient air quality standards, termed "nonattainment areas." in those areas, priority for transportation funds was to be given to "transportation control measures" (tcms) that contributed to reducing air pollution emissions from transportation sources. where an areas transportation plan or program was not in conformance with the sip, "sanctions" were to be applied that prohibited the use of federal funds on major transportation projects (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1981b). the 1977 clean air act amendments certainly gave impetus to short- 143 range planning and transportation system management strategies. they also added a new dimension to the institutional and analytical complexity of the planning process. 144 chapter 9 urban economic revitalization in the mid 1970's the country was feeling the effects of structural changes in the economy, high unemployment, inflation, and rising energy prices. many of the problems had been developing for a number of years. the economy was in a transition from a predominantly manufacturing base to one that had a larger share concentrated in service, communication, and high technology industries. jobs in the manufacturing sector were declining and new jobs were growing in the new sectors of the economy. people were moving to those areas of the country where the new jobs were being created, especially the south and the west. the older urban areas in the northeast and midwest were being affected most severely by these changes. but older central cities in all sections of the country were in decline as jobs and people migrated first to the suburbs and then to the newer urban areas where the economies were growing. these older communities and central cities were severely distressed economically and limited in their ability to address these problems themselves. it was recognized that the federal government had contributed to these problems with programs that had unintended consequences. however, many of the decisions that affected changes in urban areas were outside the control of even the federal government and often any level of government. the federal, state, and local levels of government would, therefore, have to cooperate among themselves and with the private sector in order to alleviate these problems. 1978 national urban policy report in title vii of the housing and urban development act of 1970 the congress required preparation of biennial reports on national 145 growth and development. congress recognized the need to analyze the many aspects of the nation's growth in a systematic manner with the objective of formulating a national urban growth policy. the first report, transmitted to congress in 1972, discussed the broad subject of national growth, including both rural and urban areas (domestic council, 1972). the 1974 report focused on the dominant role of the private sector in determining growth and the ways in which the public and private sector could influence development patterns. the 1976 report discussed the decline of older northeastern cities, the constraints of energy, environmental resources, and the need to conserve and rehabilitate existing housing and public facilities (domestic council, 1976). the national urban policy and new community development act of 1977 amended the 1970 act to designate the report the "national urban policy report" rather than the more general "report on urban growth" (domestic council, 1976). less than a year later, on march 27, 1978, president carter presented his message to congress on national urban policy. the policy was designed to build a new partnership to conserve americans communities involving all levels of government, the private sector, and neighborhood and voluntary organizations. it contained a number of proposals to improve existing programs and for new initiatives with the purpose of revitalizing distressed central cities and older suburbs (u.s. dept. of housing and urban development, 1978b). the president's message was followed in august by the president's 1978 national urban policy report (u.s. dept. of housing and urban development, 1978b). like its predecessors, the report discussed the demographic, social and economic trends in the nation's urban areas. but, it was the first report to recommend a national urban policy. the recommendations in the report and the president's message were developed by an inter-departmental committee called the urban and regional policy group. the group worked for a year with extensive public involvement to formulate its analysis of the 146 problems and recommendations (u.s. department of housing and urban development, 1978a). the urban policy consisted of nine objectives. the first urban policy objective was, "encourage and support efforts to improve local planning and management capacity and the effectiveness of existing federal programs by coordinating these programs, simplifying planning requirements, reorienting resources, and reducing paperwork, other objectives called for greater state, private sector and voluntary involvement to assist urban areas. several objectives were for fiscal relief for distressed communities and assistance to disadvantaged persons. the last objective was for an improved physical environment and reduced urban sprawl (u.s. dept. of housing and urban development, 1978b). a wide range of legislative and administrative actions were taken to implement the national urban policy (u.s. dept. of housing and urban development, 1980). the department of transportation, fhwa and umta, issued guidance for evaluating the impact on urban centers of major transportation projects and investments. the guidance required an analysis of the impacts of improvements in highways and transit on central cities' development, tax base, employment, accessibility and environment. in addition, impacts on energy conservation, and on minorities and neighborhoods were to be analyzed. furthermore, the guidance required that improvements to existing facilities be considered first, including the repair and rehabilitation of transportation facilities and tsm measures to increase the effectiveness of those facilities. in this manner, the guidance sought to assure that the new investments in transportation facilities would be cost-effective (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979e). the new national urban policy gave added impetus to the shift from constructing new facilities to managing, maintaining and replacing existing facilities. it was rooted in the belief that mobility 147 could be assured despite energy, environmental, and financial constraints. the key was to manage the use of the automobile in the city better. the challenge was for the urban transportation planning process to maintain and enhance mobility while meeting these other objectives (heanue, 1980). surface transportation assistance act of 1978 the surface transportation assistance act of 1978 was the first act that combined highway, public transportation and highway safety authorizations in one piece of legislation. it provided $51.4 billion for the fiscal years 1979 through 1982, with $30.6 billion for highways, $13.6 billion for public transportation, and $7.2 billion for highway safety. it was the first time that authorizations for the highway program were made for a four-year period. highway trust fund user charges were extended five years to 1984 and the fund itself to 1985. title i, the federal-aid highway act of 1978, accelerated completion of the national system of interstate and defense highways. it concentrated funds on projects that were ready to be constructed by changing the availability of a state's apportionment from four to two years. if the funds were not used, they could be reallocated to states with projects ready to go. the act withdrew authority to replace one interstate route with another. it placed a deadline of september 30, 1983, on substituting public transportation or other highway projects for withdrawn interstate routes. the federal share for both highway and transit substitute projects was increased to 85 percent. the act required that environmental impact statements for interstate projects be submitted by september 30, 1983, and that they be under contract or construction by september 30, 1986, if sufficient federal funds we re available. if the deadlines were not met, the interstate route or subs '	b' urban transportation planning in the us - a historical overview/nov 1992 ![navigation bar](http://www.bts.gov/images/topbar6.gif) ![department of transportation](../images/dot.gif) ### urban transportation planning in the us - a historical overview/nov 1992 here for graphic >. urban transportation planning in the united states an historical overview revised edition november 1992 prepared by edward weiner office of economics office of the assistant secretary for policy and international affairs office of the secretary of transportation washington, d.c. 20590 distributed in cooperation with technology sharing program u.s. department of transportation washington, d.c. 20590 dot-t-93-02 preface local agencies. over the years, much experience has been gained in the planning and evaluation of urban transportation systems. this knowledge can be useful to planners and decision makers in the urban transportation planning is carried out primarily by state and development and implementation of transportation system changes. and planning options which have been tried, and how they developed into the approaches we have today. this report describes the evolution of urban transportation planning over the last sixty in this context, it is important to understand the transportation years. in 1983. the earlier edition discussed urban transportation planning to mid-1986. this edition updates the evolution of urban transportation planning and policy to mid-1992. it also contains many additions and some revisions to the earlier edition. this this is the fourth edition of this report which was first published report is an updated version of "evolution of urban transportation planning" which was published in 1979 as chapter 15 in public transportation: planning, operations and management., edited by george e. gray and lester l. hoel. transportation planning including developments in technical procedures, philosophy, processes and institutions. but, planners must also be aware of changes in legislation, policy, regulations and technology. these events have been included to provide a more complete picture of the forces that have affected and often the report focuses on key events in the evolution of urban continue to affect urban transportation planning. choices. the efforts of many individuals and groups made important contributions to the development of urban i transportation planning. clearly, not all of these contributions could be included or cited. this report concentrates on the key events of national significance and thereby tries to capture the overall evolution of urban transportation planning. focusing on key events also serves as a convenient point to discuss summarizing so much history in a single report requires difficult developments in a particular area. titled with the major theme pervading that period as viewed by the author. not all key events fit precisely under a particular theme, but many do. the discussion of the background for some events or the follow-on activities for others may cover more than one time the report is generally arranged chronologically. each period is period and is placed where it seemed most relevant. the report takes a multimodal perspective and attempts to provide a balanced view among a number of subject areas including: significant federal legislation major, relevant federal regulations and policies highway concerns transit concerns environmental issues energy issues safety issues relevant conferences technological developments transportation service alternatives manuals and methodological developments national transportation studies national data resources local events with national significance persons in the profession. often they had participated in or had first hand knowledge of the events. the author appreciates their ii assistance, even though they are too numerous to mention over the years, the author has discussed these events with many specifically. individuals who provided information on specific events. their in preparing this report, the author was directly aided by several assistance is appreciated: barry berlin, susan binder, norman cooper, frederick w. ducca, christopher r. fleet, charles a. hedges, anthony r. kane, thomas koslowski, ira laster, james j. mcdonnell, florence miller, camille c. mittelholtz, norman paulhus, elizabeth a. parker, john peak, sam rea, carl rappaport, james a. scott, mary lynn tischer, jimmy yu, and samuel zimmerman. the author appreciates the review comments provided by: donald emerson, david s. gendell, james getzewich, charles h. graves, thomas j. hillegass, howard s. lapin, herbert s. levinson, alfonso b. linhares, gary e. maring, ali f. sevin, gordon shunk, peter r. stopher, carl n. swerdloff, paul l. verchinski, and george wickstrom. any errors of fact or interpretation are the responsibility of the author. edward weiner washington, dc november, 1992 table of contents preface . i 1. introduction 1 2. early highway planning 9 need for highway planning. 9 federal-aid highway act of 1934. .10 electric railway presidents' conference committee. .12 manual on uniform traffic control devices. .13 aasho policy on geometric design of rural highways .14 toll road study. .15 highway capacity manual. .16 interregional highway report .17 3. beginnings of urban transportation planning19 federal-aid highway act of 1944. .21 early urban travel surveys .22 early transit planning .24 dawn of analytical methods .25 aasho manual on user benefit analysis. .27 breakthroughs in analytical techniques .28 national committee on urban transportation .31 housing act of 1954. .31 pioneering urban transportation studies. .32 federal-aid highway act of 1956. .34 sagamore conference on highways and urban development. .36 housing act of 1961. .37 v 4. urban transportation planning comes of age .39 joint report on urban mass transportation. .39 president kennedy's transportation message .41 federal-aid highway act of 1962. .41 hershey conference on urban freeways .43 implementation of the 1962 federal-aid highway act .44 conventional urban travel forecasting process. .47 southeastern wisconsin regional planning commission. .50 highway planning program manual. .53 urban mass transportation act of 1964. .54 urban development simulation models. .55 williamsburg conference on highways and urban development. .56 5. improved intergovernmental coordination. .59 housing and urban development act of 1965. .60 1966 amendments to the urban mass transportation act .60 highway and motor vehicle safety acts of 1966. .61 department of transportation act of 1966 .63 national historic preservation act of 1966 .64 demonstration cities and metropolitan development act of 1966 .65 dartmouth conference on urban development models .66 reserved bus lanes .67 national highway needs studies .69 federal-aid highway act of 1968. .73 "continuing" urban transportation planning .75 intergovernmental cooperation act of 1968. .77 bureau of the budget's circular no. a-95 .77 6.environment and citizen involvement81 for highways. .81 citizen participation and the two-hearing process vi national environmental policy act of 1969. .82 environmental quality improvement act of 1970. .83 nationwide personal transportation study .84 clean air act amendments of 1970 .85 boston transportation planning review. .87 urban corridor demonstration program .89 census journey-to-work surveys .91 7. beginnings of multimodal urban transportation planning .95 urban mass transportation assistance act of 1970 .97 federal-aid highway act of 1970. .98 conference on urban commodity flow .99 mt. pocono conference on urban transportation planning 101 dot initiatives toward planning unification. 102 process guidelines for highway projects. 103 umta's external operating manual 104 williamsburg conference on urban travel forecasting. 106 federal-aid highway act of 1973. 107 endangered species act of 1973 109 aashto policy on geometric design of urban highways. 110 1972 and 1974 national transportation studies. 111 national mass transportation assistance act of 1974. 113 planpac and utps batteries of computer programs. 114 8. transition to short-term planning. 117 emergency energy legislation 117 service and methods demonstration program. 119 ota's report on automated guideway transit 120 model 13(c) labor protection agreement for operating assistance. 123 joint highway-transit planning regulations 124 policy on major urban mass transportation investments. 128 characteristics of urban transportation systems. 130 vii light rail transit 132 federal-aid highway act of 1976. 134 ite trip generation report 135 urban system study. 136 road pricing demonstration program 137 national transportation trends and choices 138 transit uniform system of accounts and records 139 clean air act amendments of 1977 141 9. economic revitalization. 145 1978 national urban policy report. 145 surface transportation assistance act of 1978. 148 quick response urban travel forecasting techniques 150 national energy act of 1978. 152 council on environmental quality's regulations 153 bart impact program. 155 international conferences on behavioral travel demand. 158 national ridesharing demonstration program 161 urban initiatives program. 163 section 504 regulations on accessibility for the handicapped 164 national transportation policy study commission. 166 aspen conference on future urban transportation. 167 highway performance monitoring system. 169 10. decentralization of decisionmaking 171 president reagan's memorandum on regulations 171 airlie house conference on urban transportation planning in the 1980's 172 federal-aid highway act of 1981. 173 e.o. 12372, intergovernmental review of federal programs. 174 woods hole conference on future directions of urban public transportation. 176 viii easton conference on travel analysis methods for the 1980's. 177 surface transportation assistance act of 1982. 179 advent of microcomputers 182 new urban transportation planning regulations. 184 11. private sector participation 187 paratransit policy 187 conferences on goods transportation in urban areas 189 transportation management associations 190 revised major transit capital investment policy. 191 private participation in the transit program 195 national transit performance reports 196 charter bus regulations. 198 surface transportation and uniform relocation assistance act of 1987. 201 national conference on transportation planning applications. 205 smuggler's notch conference on highway finance 208 revised fhwa/umta environmental regulation 209 national council on public works improvement 210 12. strategic planning 213 transportation 2020. 214 williamsburg conference on transportation and economic development. 216 national transportation strategic planning study. 217 intelligent vehicle highway systems. 220 geographic information systems 222 transportation demand management 223 national maglev initiative 225 clean air act amendments of 1990. 229 strategic planning and management. 237 ix americans with disabilities act 238 intermodal surface transportation efficiency act of 1991 240 13. concluding remarks 259 appendices references 265 list of abbreviations. 293 chapter 1 introduction of 1962 created the federal mandate for urban transportation planning in the united states. the act was the capstone of two decades of experimentation and development of urban transportation procedures and institutions. it was passed at a time in which urban areas were beginning to plan interstate highway routes through and around their areas. the 1962 act combined with the incentive of 90 percent federal funding for interstate highway projects caused urban transportation planning to spread quickly throughout the united states. it also had a significant influence almost thirty years have passed since the federal-aid highway act on urban transportation planning in other parts of the world. in some ways, the urban transportation planning process and planning techniques have changed little over the thirty years. years in response to changing issues, conditions and values, and a greater understanding of urban transportation phenomena. current urban transportation planning practice is considerably more sophisticated, complex, and costly than its highway planning yet, in other ways, urban transportation has evolved over these predecessor. modifications in the planning process took many years to evolve. and processes were introduced. these modifications sought to make the planning process more responsive and sensitive to those areas of concern. urban areas that had the resources and technical as new concerns and issues arose, changes in planning techniques ability were the first to develop new concepts and techniques. these new ideas were diffused by various means throughout the nation, usually with the assistance of the federal government. the rate at which the new concepts were accepted varied from area 1 to area. consequently, the quality and depth of planning is highly variable at any point in time. weather highways and with connecting the various portions of the nation. as this work was being accomplished, the problems of serving increasing traffic grew. with the planning for urban areas came additional problems of land development, dislocation of homes and businesses, environmental degradation, citizen participation, energy consumption, and social concerns such as providing transportation for the disadvantaged. more recently have been the concerns about deterioration of the transportation infrastructure early highway planning concentrated on developing a network of all and traffic congestion. conducted by state and local agencies. this is entirely appropriate since highway and transit facilities and services are owned and operated largely by the states and local agencies. the role of the federal government has been to set national policy, provide financial aid, supply technical assistance and training, and conduct research. over the years, the federal government has attached requirements to its financial assistance. from a planning perspective, the most important has been the requirement that transportation projects in urbanized areas of 50,000 or more in urban transportation planning in the united states has always been population be based on an urban transportation planning process. this requirement was first incorporated into the federal-aid highway act of 1962. and regulations over the years. many of these are chronicled in this report. at times these requirements have been very exacting in their detail. at, other times, greater flexibility was allowed in responding to the requirements. currently, there is underway a devolution of federal involvement in and requirements on local other requirements have been incorporated into federal legislation planning and decisionmaking processes. greater emphasis is being 2 placed as well on involving the private sector in providing and financing urban transportation facilities and services. over the years, a number of federal agencies have affected urban transportation planning. (table 1 ) the u.s. bureau of public roads (bpr) was part of the u.s. department of commerce when the 1962 highway act was passed. it became part of the u.s. department of changed to the u.s. federal highway administration (fhwa). the transportation (dot) upon its creation in 1966 and its name was federal urban mass transportation program began in 1961 under the u.s. housing and home finance administration, which became the u.s. department of housing and urban development in 1965. the federal urban transit program was transferred to dot in 1968 as the u.s. urban mass transportation administration (umta). the name was changed to the u.s. federal transit administration (fta) by the federal transit act amendments of 1991. the u.s. federal railroad administration (fra) was created at the same time as dot. the national traffic and motor vehicle safety act of 1966 established the national traffic safety agency, and the highway safety act of 1966 established the national highway safety agency both in the department of commerce. the two safety agencies were combined by executive order 11357 in 1967 into the national highway safety bureau in the newly created dot. in 1970 it became the national highway traffic safety administration (nhtsa). other federal agencies became involved in urban transportation planning as new issues arose. the advisory council on historic historic preservation programs. the bureau of the budget (bob), later to become the office of management and budget (omb), issued guidance in 1969 to improve coordination among programs funded by the federal government. to address environmental concerns that preservation was established in 1966 to administer national were increasing in the latter part of the 1960's, the council on environmental quality (ceq) was created in 1969 and the u.s. environmental protection agency (epa) in 1970. the u.s. 3 table 1 dates selected federal agencies were established 1849 department of interior 1913 department of commerce 1916 bureau of public roads 1921 bureau of the budget 1947 housing and home finance agency 1953 department of health, education and welfare 1965 department of housing and urban development 1966 department of transportation 1966 federal highway administration 1966 federal railroad administration 1966 advisory council on historic preservation 1967 national highway safety bureau 1968 urban mass transportation administration 1969 council on environmental quality 1970 national highway traffic safety administration 1970 office of management and budget 1970 environmental protection agency 1977 department of energy 1979 department of health and human services 1991 federal transit administration 4 department of health, education and welfare (hew), now the u.s. urban transportation in 1973 as part of its function to eliminate department of health and human services (hhs), became involved in discrimination against handicapped persons in federal programs. with the passage if the endangered species act of 1973, the department of interior and the department of commerce became involved in some aspects of urban transportation planning. in 1977, the u.s. department of energy (doe) was created to bring together federal energy functions. and local level created an increasing challenge to agencies conducting urban transportation planning to meet all the requirements that resulted. local planners devoted substantial resources to meeting requirements of higher level governments, which often detracted from their ability to address local needs and objectives. these requirements, however, were also used by local agencies as the justification to carry out activities that they desired but for which they could not obtain support at the local the involvement of these and other agencies at the federal, state level. transportation planning process in the united states from its beginnings in early highway and transit planning to its current this report reviews the historical development of the urban focus on strategic planning and privatization. chapter 2 discusses the early beginnings of highway planning. chapter 3 covers the formative years of urban transportation planning during which many of the basic concepts were developed. chapter 4 focuses on the 1962 federal-aid highway act and the sweeping changes it brought in urban transportation planning in the united states. it also describes early federal involvement in urban public transportation. 5 beginning of the federal highway and vehicle safety programs, a deeper federal role in urban public transportation and the chapter 5 discusses efforts at intergovernmental coordination, the evolution to "continuing" transportation planning. and the increased involvement of citizens in the urban chapter 6 describes the environmental revolution of the late 1960's transportation planning process. urban public transportation and highways. these included major increases in federal transit programs as well as increased chapter 7 addresses the events that led to integrated planning for flexibility in the use of highway funds. the transition from long-term system planning to short-term, smaller scale planning. it also discusses the concern for cost- effectiveness in transportation decisions and the emphasis on chapter 8 focuses on the arab oil embargo of 1973 which accelerated transportation system management techniques. urban centers and the growing need for energy conservation. it describes the expanding federal requirements on environmental chapter 9 highlights the concern for the revitalization of older quality and transportation for special groups. chapter 10 describes the efforts to reverse federal intrusion into local decisions and to scale back federal requirements. sector in the provision of transportation services and the decline chapter 11 discusses the expanded interest in involving the private in public resources to address transportation planning. the next century, and the renewed interest in new technological chapter 12 focuses on strategic planning to the year 2000 and into options. it also discusses the growing concern for traffic 6 congestion and air pollution and the efforts at transportation demand management. chapter 13 provides a summary and concluding remarks. 7 chapter 2 early highway planning rising tide of automobile and truck usage during the first quarter of the twentieth century. from 190.4, when the first automobiles ventured out of the cities, traffic grew at a steady and rapid rate. after the initial period of highway construction which connected many of the nation's cities, emphasis shifted to improving the highway system to carry these increased traffic loads. early highway planning focused on the collection and analysis of factual information and, on applying that information early highway planning grew out the need for information on the to the growing highway problems in the period prior to world war ii. need for highway planning regarded as a pleasure vehicle rather than an important means of transportation. consequently, highways consisted of comparatively short sections that were built from the cities into the countryside. there were significant gaps in many important intercity routes. during this period, urban roads were considered to be adequate, particularly in comparison to rural roads which in the early years of highway construction, the automobile had been were generally not paved. widespread, the idea of a highway network gained in strength. the concept of a continuous national system of highways was recognized as the automobile was improved and ownership became more in the federal-aid highway act of 1925 with the adoption of a routes extending entirely across the nation. this was not a formal united states numbered highway system composed of important through highway system but simply a basis for route marking as a 9 guide for motorists (holmes and lynch, 1957). of 1921, and the marking of through routes, the focus of highway construction was on "closing the gaps." by the early 1930's, the objective of constructing a system of two-lane roads connecting the centers of population had largely been completed. it was then possible to travel around the country on a smooth, all-weather with the adoption of a federal-aid system, in the federal-aid act highway system (u.s. federal works agency, 1949). construction, attention shifted to the more complex issues resulting from the rapid growth in traffic and increasing vehicle weights. figure 1 shows the growth in vehicle registrations, motor fuel consumption, highway expenditures and tax receipts during the period (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1954). early highways were inadequate in width, grade and alignment to serve major traffic loads, and highway pavements had not been designed to carry the with the completion of this "pioneering period" of highway numbers and weights of the newer trucks. collection and analysis of information on highways and their use on it became clear that these growing problems necessitated the a more comprehensive scale than had ever before been attempted (holmes and lynch, 1957). a systematic approach to the planning of highways was needed to respond to these problems. federal-aid highway act of 1934 authorized that 1-1/2 percent of the amount apportioned to any state annually for construction could be used for surveys, plans, engineering, and economic analyses for future highway construction beginning with the federal-aid highway act of 1934, the congress projects. the act created the cooperative arrangement between the u.s. bureau of public roads (now the u.s. federal highway administration) and the state highway departments, known as the 10 click here for graphic. 11 statewide highway planning surveys. by 1940, all states were participating in this program (holmes and lynch, 1957). complete inventory and mapping of the highway system and its physical characteristics. traffic surveys were undertaken to determine the volume of traffic by vehicle type, weight, and dimensions. financial studies were made to determine the relationship of highway finances to other financial operations within each state, to assess the ability of the states to finance the construction and operation of the highway system, and to indicate how to allocate highway taxes among the users. many of the same types of activities are still being performed on a as an initial activity, these highway planning surveys included a continuing basis by highway agencies (holmes, 1962). electric railway presidents, conference committee transportation by world war i with over 1,000 street railway electric railway systems were the backbone of urban mass companies carrying some 11 billion passengers by 1917 (mills, 1975). after 1923, ridership on the nation's electric railways began to decline as the motor bus, with its flexibility to change routes and lower capital costs, quickly began replacing the electric the electric streetcar (n.d. lea transportation research fares to cover costs, the financial condition of street railway corporation, 1975). with rising costs and the inability to raise companies worsened. in 1930, the heads of 25 electric railway companies formed electric railway presidents' conference committee (pcc). the goal of the performance, and modern image of its competitors, and stem the decline of the street railway industry. the effort took five years and $750,000. it was one of the most thorough and efficiently pcc was to develop a modern streetcar to match the comfort, organized ventures in urban mass transit. the 12 product, known as the "pcc car," far surpassed its predecessors in acceleration, braking, passenger comfort, and noise (mills, 1975). the first commercial application of the pcc car was in 1935 in brooklyn, new york. by 1940 more than 1100 vehicles had been purchased. by 1952, when production was first halted, about 6,000 competitive position of streetcars and slow the conversion to buses. but without other improvements, such as exclusive rights of pcc cars had been produced. the pcc cars did improve the way, it could not stop the long term decline in street railways. by 1960, streetcars remained in only about a dozen cities in the u.s. (vuchic, 1981). manual on uniform traffic control devices in automobile traffic, the need for high uniform standards for traffic control devices became obvious. these traffic control devices included signs, traffic signals, markings and other devices placed on, over, or adjacent to a street or highway by a public as the highway system was expanded and upgraded to meet the growth body to guide, warn, or regulate traffic. in 1927, the american association of state highway officials published the manual and specifications for the manufacture, display and erection of u.s. standard road markers and signs. the manual was developed for application of rural highways. then, in 1929, the national conference of street and highway safety published a manual for use on urban streets. different classes of road and street systems was obvious. to meet but the necessity for unification of the standards applicable to that need, a joint committee of the aasho and the national developed the first manual on uniform traffic control devices which conference of street and highway safety combined their efforts and was published by the bpr in 1935. 13 over the years since that first manual, the problems and needs of traffic control changed. new solutions and devices were developed, as well as the standards to guide their application. the original joint committee continued its existence with occasional changes in organization and personnel. in 1972, the committee formally became the national advisory committee on uniform traffic control devices to the fhwa. the committee has been responsible for periodic revisions to update and expand the manual in 1942, 1948, 1961, 1971, 1978 and 1988 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1978b; upchurch, 1989). aasho policy on geometric design of rural highways and highway design features, there was a need to incorporate it into practice. the committee on planning and design policies of the american association of state highway officials (aasho) was formed in 1937 for this purpose. the committee's mode of operation was to outline a program of work which was performed by the bpr under the supervision of the committee secretary. the bpr gathered known information and developed draft guidance, known a policies, which were revised by the committee. the policies were finally as new knowledge became available on the performance of vehicles approved by a two-thirds favorable vote of the states. in the period 1938 to 1944 the committee under secretary joseph highway types, sight distance, signing, and intersection design for at-grade, rotaries and grade separations. these policies were barnett produced seven policies related to highway classification, reprinted without change and bound as a single volume in 1950 (american association of state highway officials, 1950). the policies were updated, expanded and rewritten as a single cohesive document and issued as a policy on geometric design of rural highways in 1954 (american association of state highway officials, 1954). the policy contained design guidance on the 14 criteria determining highway design, vertical and horizontal alignment, cross section elements, at-grade and grade intersections, and interchanges. the volume, which became known as the "blue book," went through seven printings by 1965. it received wide acceptance as the standard guide for highway design. the policy was again reissued in 1966 in revised and updated form to reflect more current information (american association of state highway officials, 1966). and rural highways. as new data and research results became available on urban highways, the aasho committee decided to issued much of the material in the 1954 rural policy applied both to urban a separate policy for the geometric design of urban highways (american association of state highway officials, 1957). standards. research engineers collected data on the performance of vehicles and highways. these data were brought together in the form of design standards, generally by staff of the bpr under the guidance of the aasho. eventually, they became part of highway design practice through agreement of the states. as a result of their factual basis and adoption through common agreement, the the development of these policies typified the approach to highways policies had immense influence on the design of highways in the united states and abroad. toll road study by the mid 1930's, there was considerable sentiment for a few long- distance, controlled-access highways connecting major cities. advocates of such a highway system assumed that the public would be willing to finance much of its cost by tolls. the u.s. bureau of the idea, and two years later it published the report, toll roads public roads was requested by president roosevelt in 1937 to study and free roads (u.s. congress, 1939). 15 comprised of direct, interregional highways with all necessary connections through and around cities. it concluded that this nationwide highway system could not be financed solely through tolls, even though certain sections could. it also recommended the creation of a federal land authority empowered to acquire, hold, sell, and lease land. the report emphasized the problem of transportation within major cities and used the city of baltimore the study recommended the construction of a highway system to be as an example (holmes, 1973). highway capacity manual during the 1920's and early 1930's, a number of studies were conducted to determine the capacity of highways to carry traffic. observers, cameras and aerial surveys created a body of empirical data on which to base capacity estimates. by 1934, it was clear that a coordinated effort was needed to integrate the results of early efforts were theoretical but, gradually, fields studies using the various studies and to collect and analyze additional data. large quantity of data on a wide variety of roads under different the bpr launched such an effort from 1934 to 1937 to collect a conditions (cron, 1975a). in 1944, the highway research board organized a committee on chairman, o.k. normann, was the foremost researcher on highway capacity at that time. by 1949, the committee had succeeded in reducing the enormous volume of factual information on highway capacity to a form that would be usable to highway designers and highway capacity to coordinate the work in this field. its traffic engineers. the results were first published in public roads magazine, and then as a separate volume entitled, the highway capacity, and presented methods for calculating it for various types of highways and elements under different conditions. this capacity manual (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1950). the manual defined manual quickly became the standard for highway 16 design and planning. more than 26,000 copies of the manual were sold, and it was translated into nine other languages. with o.k. normann as chairman, to continue the study of highway capacity and prepare a new edition of the manual. much of the work was done by the staff of the bpr. the new manual, which was issued in 1965, placed new emphasis on freeways, ramps, and weaving sections because they had come into widespread use. a chapter on bus transit was also added. other types of highways and streets continued to receive complete coverage. this manual, like its predecessor, was primarily a practical guide. it described methods to estimate capacity, service volume, or level of service for a specific highway design under specific conditions. alternately, the committee on highway capacity was reactivated in 1953, again the design to carry a given traffic demand could be determined (highway research board, 1965). the third edition the highway capacity manual was published by the decades of empirical research by a number of research agencies transportation research board in 1985. it reflected over two primarily under the sponsorship of the national cooperative highway were divided into three sections on freeways, rural highways, and urban streets with detailed procedures and work sheets. the material in the third edition offered significantly revised procedures in many of the areas, and included entirely new sections research program and the fhwa. the procedures and methodologies on pedestrians and bicycles (transportation research board, 1985c). interregional highway report in april 1941, president roosevelt appointed the national limited system of national highways to improve the facilities interregional highway committee to investigate the need for a available for interregional transportation. the staff work was 17 done by the u.s. public roads administration, which was the name of the bureau of public roads at that time, and in 1944 the findings were published in the report, interregional highways (u.s. congress, 1944). a system of highways, designated as the "national authorized in the federal-aid highway act of 1944. however, it was not until the federal-aid highway act of 1956 that any significant system of interstate and defense highways," was recommended and work on the system began. this study was unique in the annals of transportation planning and the implementation of its findings has had profound effects on engineers, and economists together with the highway officials responsible for implementing highway programs. the final route choices were influenced as much by strategic necessity and such factors as population density, concentrations of manufacturing activity, and agricultural production as by existing and future american lifestyles and industry. the study brought planners, traffic (holmes, 1973). was not intended that these highways serve urban commuter travel demands in the major cities. as stated in the report, "...it is important, both locally and nationally, to recognize the recommended system ... as that system and those routes which best and most directly join region to region and major city to major the importance of the system within cities was recognized, but it city" (u.s. congress, 1944). transportation and for cooperation at all levels of government. it reiterated the need for a federal land authority with the power of the report recognized the need to coordinate with other modes of excess condemnation and similar authorities at the state level. 18 chapter 3 beginnings of urban transportation planning materials and personnel were used to build access roads for war production and military needs. with rationing of gasoline and tires, and no new automobiles being manufactured, the use of transit mushroomed. between 1941 and 1946, transit ridership grew during world war ii, regular highway programs stopped. highway by 65 percent to an all-time high of 23.4 billion trips annually (american public transit association, 1981). (figure 2) automobiles ushered in the suburban boom era. automobile when the war came to an end, the pent-up demand for homes and production jumped from a mere 70,000 in 1945 to 2.1 million in 1946, 3.5 million, and 3.5 million in 1947. highway travel reached its prewar peak by 1946 and began to climb at 6 percent per year that was to continue for decades (dept. of transportation, 1979a). had increased during the war. by 1953, there were fewer than 14 transit use, on the other hand, declined at about the same rate it billion transit trips annually (transportation research board, 1987). load of traffic. little had been done during the war to improve the nation's highways were in poor shape to handle this increasing the highways and wartime traffic had exacerbated their condition. moreover, the growth of development in the suburbs occurred where highways did not have the capacity to carry the resulting traffic. rural roads (dept. of transportation, 1979a). transit facilities, too, experienced significant wear and tear during the war from extended use and deferred maintenance. this resulted in deterioration in transit's physical plant by war's end. pent-up suburban traffic quickly overwhelmed the existing two-lane formerly wage demands of transit employees were met causing nearly a 50 19 click here for graphic. 20 percent in average fares by 1950. this further contributed to a decline in ridership. these factors combined to cause serious financial problems for many transit companies (transportation research board, 1987). from suburban growth and resulting from the return to a peacetime economy. many of the planning activities which had to be deferred the postwar era concentrated on dealing with the problems resulting during the war resumed with renewed vigor. federal-aid highway act of 1944 the transition to a postwar economy and to prepare for the expected growth in traffic. the act significantly increased the funds authorized for federal-aid highway programs from $137,500 in 1942 and 1943, no funds in 1944 and 1945, to $500,000 annually for 1946 through 1948. the act also recognized the growing complexity of the federal-aid highway act of 1944 was passed in anticipation of the highway program. the original 7 percent federal-aid highway program was renamed the federal-aid primary system, and selection by the states of a authorized. federal-aid funding was authorized in three parts, federal-aid secondary system of farm-to-market and feeder roads was known as the "abc" program with 45 percent for the primary system, 30 percent for the secondary system, and 25 percent for urban extensions of the primary and secondary systems. the act continued the allocation of funds by means of formulas. population, and postal route miles as factors. for the secondary system, the same formula was used except that rural population was substituted for total population. for the urban extensions, urban population was the only factor. for the first time, federal-aid for the primary system, funds were allocated using area, total funds up to one-third the cost could be used to 21 acquire right-of-way. authorized. the routes were selected by the states with bpr approval. however, but no special funds were provided to build the a national system of interstate highways of 40,000 miles was system beyond regular federal-aid authorizations. early urban travel surveys was during that year the federal-aid highway act authorized the expenditure of funds on urban extensions of the federal-aid primary and secondary highway systems. until that time there was a lack of information on urban travel which could be used for the planning of highway facilities. in fact, no comprehensive survey methods had most urban areas did not begin urban travel surveys until 1944. it been developed that could provide the required information. shifting of travel from route to route, traffic volumes were not a satisfactory guide to needed improvements. a study of the origins and destinations of trips and the basic factors affecting travel because of the complex nature of urban street systems and the was needed (holmes and lynch, 1957). origin- destination survey. household members were interviewed to obtain information on the number, purpose, mode, origin, and destination of all trips made on a particular day. these urban travel surveys were used in the planning of highway facilities, particularly expressway systems, and in determining design the method developed to meet this need was the home-interview features. the u.s. bureau of public roads published the first, manual of procedures for home interview traffic studies, in 1944 (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1944). figure 3 shows the internal trip report form from a home interview survey. in 1944, the interviewing technique was used in tulsa, little rock, new orleans, kansas city, memphis, savannah, and lincoln. 22 click here for graphic. 23 also being developed and applied in pioneering traffic planning studies. new concepts and techniques were being generated and refined in such areas as traffic counting, highway inventories and classification, highway capacity, pavement condition studies, cost estimating and system planning. the first attempt to meld many of these elements into an urban transportation planning process was in the cleveland regional area traffic study in 1927, which was sponsored by the u.s. bureau of public roads. but, even in this study, traffic forecasting was a crude art using basically linear other elements of the urban transportation planning process were projections (cron, 1975b). gravity model was applied to forecast traffic in 1926 but the technique was not used in other areas. in fact, the 1930's saw little advancement in the techniques of urban transportation planning. it was during this period that the methodology of in the boston transportation study, a rudimentary form of the highway needs and financial studies was developed and expanded (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979a). land use and travel could be measured, these relationships could be used as a means to project future travel. it remained for the development of the computer, with its ability to process large masses of data from these surveys, to permit estimation of these relationships between travel, land use, and other factors. the first major test using this approach to develop future highway by the 1940's it was apparent that if certain relationships between plans was during the early 1950's in san juan, puerto rico, and in detroit (silver and stowers, 1964; detroit metropolitan area traffic study, 1955/6). early transit planning during this period, transit planning was being carried out by operators as part of the regular activities of operating a transit 24 system. federal assistance was not available for planning or construction, and little federal interest existed in transit. and there were no funds available to rehabilitate facilities and equipment. in some urban areas, transit authorities were created however, financial problems increased as transit ridership declined to take over and operate the transit system. the chicago transit authority and the metropolitan transit authority in boston were created in 1947, and the new york city transit authority in 1955. it was at this time that the san francisco bay area began planning for a regional rapid transit system. in 1956, the rapid transit result of this study, the bay area transit district (bartd) was formed within the five counties. bartd completed the planning for the transit system and conducted preliminary engineering and financial studies. in november 1962, the voters approved a bond issue to build a three-county, 75-mile system, totally with local commission proposed a 123 mile system in a five-county area. as a funds (homburger, 1967). dawn of analytical methods studies were used primarily for describing existing travel patterns, usually in the form of trip origins and destinations and by "desire lines," indicating schematically the major spatial distribution of trips. future urban travel volumes were developed by extending the past traffic growth rate into the future, merely an extrapolation technique. some transportation studies used no projections of any sort and emphasized only the alleviation of prior to the early 1950's, the results of early origin-destination existing traffic problems (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1967b). beginning in the early 1950's, new ideas and techniques were being rapidly generated for application in urban transportation planning. in 1950, the highway research board published route 25 compendium of correspondence summarizing practices in identifying traffic desire lines and linking origin-destination pairs. by the mid 1950's, thomas fratar at the cleveland transportation study developed a computer method for distributing future origin- selection and traffic assignment (campbell, 1950), which was a destination travel data using growth factors. in 1956 the eno foundation for highway traffic control published highway traffic estimation (schmidt and campbell, 1956), which documented the state of the art and highlighted the fratar technique. a study on traffic generation at columbia university, which was conducted by robert mitchell and chester rapkin. it was directed at improving the understanding of the relationship between travel and land use through empirical methods and included both persons and goods movement. mitchell and rapkin state as a major premise during this period the u.s. bureau of public roads (bpr) sponsored of their study: "despite the considerable amount of attention given in various countries to movement between place of residence and place of work, the subject has not been given the special emphasis suggested here; that is, to view trips between home and workplace as a "system of movement," changes in which may be related to land use change and to other changes in related systems of urban action or in the social structure" (mitchell and rapkin, 1954, page 65). they demonstrated an early understanding of many of the variables that effect travel patterns and behavior; for example: "systems of round trips from places of residence vary with the sex composition and age of the individual members of the household. the travel patterns of single individuals, young married couples, families with young children, and households consisting of aging persons all show marked differences in travel behavior" (ibid., page 70). 26 they also anticipated the contribution of social science methods to the understanding of travel behavior: "however, inquiry into the motivations of travel and their correspondence with both behavior and the actual events which are consequences of travel would make great contributions to understanding why this behavior occurs, and thus to increase the possibility of predicting behavior" (ibid., page 54). included developing analytical relationships for land use and travel and then forecasting them as the basis for designing future they concluded with a framework for analyzing travel patterns that transportation requirements. aasho manual on user benefit analysis toward the end of the 1940's, the aasho committee on planning and development of generally applicable analytical techniques for performing economic analysis of highway projects. the work grew out of a survey of state highway departments on the use of economic analysis which found a definite lack of similarity in the such design policies, with the assistance of bpr, undertook the procedures and their use (american association of state highway officials, 1960). building upon earlier work on highway economic analysis, the committee developed a manual for conducting benefit - cost analyses (american association of state highway officials, 1952b). the basic tenet of the manual was ... that a profit should be returned on an investment applies as well to highway projects as to general business ventures." unlike previous methods of analysis which only measured construction, right of way, and maintenance costs, the manual included the costs to the user of the highway as a necessary and integral part of the economic analysis. up to the publication, no data existed to perform such 27 an analysis. road user costs (between alternate routes) divided by the difference in costs. road user costs included: fuel, other operating costs (i.e. oil, tires, maintenance, depreciation), time value, comfort and convenience, vehicle ownership costs, and safety. the value of time was specified at $1.35 per vehicle hour or $0.75 per person hour. the value of comfort and convenience was included as an increasing cost for greater interference with the trip and varying according to the type of road. it ranged from 0 cents per mile for the best conditions to 1.0 cents per mile for the worst conditions. the manual included tables and charts containing specific values for these components of costs and the manual defined the benefit to cost ratio as the difference in benefits, and the procedures to conduct benefit - cost analyses. the manual was updated in 1960 with the same analytical methodology but new unit cost data (american association of state highway after a number of research efforts had been completed on analytical officials, 1960). a major update of the manual was issued in 1977 techniques and unit cost data (american association of state bus transit improvements. the manual recognized that benefit-cost analysis was only an element in the evaluation of transportation projects and that it fit within the larger urban transportation highway officials, 1978). the manual was also expanded to address planning process. breakthroughs in analytical techniques the first breakthrough in using an analytical technique for travel forecasting came in 1955 with the publication of a paper entitled, "a general theory of traffic movement," by alan m. voorhees (voorhees, 1956). voorhees advanced the gravity model as the means to link land use with urban traffic flows. research had been proceeding for a number of years on a gravity theory for 28 human interaction. previously, the gravity analogy had been applied by sociologists and geographers to explain population movements. voorhees used origin-destination survey data with driving time as the measure of spatial separation and estimated the exponents for a three-trip purpose gravity model. others conducting similar studies soon corroborated these results (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1963a). assignment. the primary difficulty in traffic assignment was evaluating the driver's choice of route between the origin and destination. earl campbell of the highway research board proposed an "s" curve, which related the percent usage of a particular facility to a travel-time ratio. a number of empirical studies were undertaken to evaluate the theory using diversion of traffic another breakthrough soon followed in the area of traffic to new expressways from arterial streets. from these studies, the american association of state highway officials published a standard traffic diversion curve in, "a basis for estimating traffic diversion to new highways in urban areas," in 1952. (figure 4) however, traffic assignment was still largely a mechanical process requiring judgment (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1964). then in 1957 two papers were presented that discussed a minimum impedance algorithm for networks. one was titled, "the shortest path through a maze," by edward f. moore, and the second was, "the algorithm, travel could then be assigned to minimum time paths shortest route problem," by george b. danzig. with such an using newly developed computers. the staff of the chicago area developed and refined computer programs that allowed the assignment transportation study under dr. j. douglas carroll, jr. finally of traffic for the entire chicago region (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1964). 29 click here for graphic. 30 national committee on urban transportation routes, city street congestion was steadily worsening. it was in this atmosphere that the committee on urban transportation was created in 1954. its purpose was, "to help cities do a better job of transportation planning through systematic collection of basic facts ... to afford the public the best possible transportation at the least possible cost and aid in accomplishing desirable goals of while highway departments were placing major emphasis on arterial urban renewal and sound urban growth" (national committee, 1958). representing federal, state, and city governments, transit, and other interests. it developed a guidebook, better transportation for your city (national committee, 1958), designed to help local officials establish an orderly program of urban transportation planning. it was supplemented by a series of 17 procedure manuals describing techniques for planning highway, transit, and terminal improvements. the guidebook and manuals received national recognition. even though the guidebook was primarily intended for the attention of local officials, it stressed the need for cooperative action, full communication between professionals and decisionmakers, and the development of transportation systems in keeping with the broad objectives of community development. it provided, for the first time, fully documented procedures for the committee was composed of experts in a wide range of fields, systematic transportation planning. housing act of 1954 planning was section 701 of the housing act of 1954. the act demonstrated congressional concern with urban problems and recognition of the urban planning process as an appropriate an important cornerstone of the federal policy concerning urban approach to dealing with such problems. section 701 authorized 31 the provision of federal planning assistance to state planning agencies, cities, and other municipalities having a population of less than 50,000 persons and, after further amendments, to metropolitan and regional planning agencies (washington center, 1970). planning to address the problems associated with urban growth and the formulation of local plans and policies. the act indicated that planning should occur on a region-wide basis within the the intent of the act was to encourage an orderly process of urban framework of comprehensive planning. pioneering urban transportation studies pioneering urban transportation studies in the late 1940's and during the 1950's. before these studies, urban transportation planning was based on existing travel demands or on travel forecasts using uniform growth factors applied on an areawide the developments in analytical methodology began to be applied in basis. one of the earliest to use a trip generation approach to forecast trips. trip generation rates were developed for a series of land- use categories stratified by general location, crude intensity measures and type of activity. these rates were applied, with some the san juan, puerto rico, transportation study begun in 1948, was modifications, to the projected land use plan (silver and stowers, 1964). all the elements of an urban transportation study for the first the detroit metropolitan area traffic study (dmats) put together time. it was conducted from 1953 to 1955 under executive director generation rates by land use category for each zone. future trips dr. j. douglas carroll, jr. the dmats staff developed trip were estimated from a land use forecast. the trip distribution 32 model was a variant of the gravity model with airline distance as the factor to measure travel friction. traffic assignment was carried out with speed and distance ratio curves. much of the work was done by hand with the aid of tabulating machines for some of the calculations. benefit/cost ratios were used to evaluate the major elements of the expressway network (detroit metropolitan area traffic study, 1955/1956; silver and stowers, 1964; creighton, 1970). the direction of dr. j. douglas carroll, jr. it set the standard in 1955 the chicago area transportation study (cats) began under for future urban transportation studies. the lessons learned in used the basic six-step procedure pioneered in detroit: data collection, forecasts, goal formulation, preparation of network detroit were applied in chicago with greater sophistication. cats proposals, testing of proposals, and evaluation of proposals. projected land-use patterns. they were tested using systems analysis considering the effect of each facility on other facilities in the network. networks were evaluated based on economic efficiency - the maximum amount of travel carried at the least cost. cats used trip generation, trip distribution, modal split, and traffic assignment models for travel forecasting. a simple land-use forecasting procedure was employed to forecast future land-use and activity patterns. the cats staff made major transportation networks were developed to serve travel generated by advances in the use of the computer in travel forecasting (chicago area transportation study, 1959/1962; swerdloff and stowers, 1966; wells, et. al., 1970). other transportation studies followed including the washington area traffic study in 1955, the baltimore transportation study in 1957, the pittsburgh area transportation study (pats) in 1958, the hartford area traffic study in 1958, and the penn-jersey (philadelphia) transportation study in 1959. all of these studies were transportation planning on a new scale. they were region- 33 wide, multi-disciplinary undertakings involving large full-time staffs. urban transportation studies were carried out by ad hoc organizations with separate policy committees. they were not directly connected to any unit of government. generally, these urban transportation studies were established for a limited time period with the objective of producing a plan and reporting on it. such undertakings would have been impossible before the availability of computers (creighton, 1970). networks based primarily on the criteria of economic costs and benefits. transit was given secondary consideration. new the resulting plans were heavily oriented to regional highway facilities were evaluated against traffic engineering improvements. little consideration was given to regulatory or pricing approaches, or new technologies (wells, et.al., 1970). tone for future studies. they provided the basis for the federal these pioneering urban transportation studies set the content and guidelines that were issued in the following decade. federal-aid highway act of 1956 planning came the federal-aid highway act of 1956. the act launched the largest public works program yet undertaken: construction of the national system of interstate and defense highways. the act was the culmination of two decades of studies and negotiation. as a during this early period in the development of urban transportation result of the interregional highways report, congress had adopted a in the federal-aid highway act of 1944. however, money was not authorized for construction of the system. based on the national system of interstate highways not to exceed 40,000 miles recommendations of the u.s. bureau of public roads and the department of defense, a 37,700-mile system was adopted in 1947. this network consisted primarily of the most heavily traveled routes of the federal-aid primary system. the 34 remaining 2,300 miles were reserved for additional radials, bypass- loops, and circumferential routes in and adjacent to urban areas. cooperation and aid of city officials. the urban connections were studies of urban area needs were made by the states with the formally designated in 1955 (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1957). million annually for 1952 and 1953 with a 50 percent federal share, and $175 million annually for 1954 and beyond with a 60 percent federal share. to secure a significant increase in funding, a funds were appropriated by then, but at very low levels: $25 major national lobbying effort was launched in 1952 by the highway users conference under the title, "project adequate roads." president eisenhower appointed a national advisory committee under general lucius d. clay, which produced a report, a ten-year national highway program, in 1955. it recommended building a 37,000-mile interstate system using bonds to fund the $23 billion cost (kuehn, 1976). the national system of interstate and defense highways shifted into finally, with the federal-aid highway act of 1956, construction of high gear. the act increased the authorized system extent to 41,000 miles. this system was planned to link 90 percent of the cities with populations of 50,000 or greater and many smaller cities and towns. the act also authorized the expenditure of $24.8 billion in 13 fiscal years from 1957 to 1969 at a 90 percent federal share. the act provided construction standards and maximum sizes and weights of vehicles that could operate on the system. the system was to be completed by 1972 (kuehn, 1976). on gasoline and other motor fuels and excise taxes on tires and established new taxes on retreaded tires and a weight tax on heavy trucks and buses. it created the highway trust fund to receive the tax revenue which was dedicated solely for highway purposes. this the companion highway revenue act of 1956 increased federal taxes provision broke with a long-standing congressional precedent 35 not to earmark taxes for specific authorized purposes (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1957). established an assured funding source for highways, through user charges, at a time when federal funds were not available for mass transportation. they set a 90 percent federal share which was far these acts have had a profound effect on urban areas. they above the existing 50 percent share for other federal-aid highways. provide alternative interstate service into, through, and around urban areas. these provisions dominated urban transportation planning for years to come and eventually caused the development of about 20 percent of the system mileage was designated as urban to countervailing forces to balance the urban highway program. sagamore conference on highways and urban development brought immediate response to develop action programs. to encourage the cooperative development of highway plans and the availability of large amounts of funds from the 1956 act programs, a conference was held in 1958 in the sagamore center at syracuse university (sagamore, 1958). transportation, including public transportation, on a region-wide, comprehensive basis in a manner that supported the orderly development of the urban areas. the conference report recognized that urban transportation plans should be evaluated through a grand accounting of benefits and costs that included both user and the conference focused on the need to conduct the planning of urban nonuser impacts. implementation urged, but progress was slow. the larger urban areas were carrying out pioneering urban transportation studies, the conference recommendations were endorsed and their the most noteworthy being the cats. but few of the smaller urban 36 areas had begun planning studies due to the lack of capable staff to perform urban transportation planning. to encourage smaller areas to begin planning efforts, the american municipal association, the american association of state highway launched a program in early 1962 to describe and explain how to carry out urban transportation planning. this program was officials, and the national association of county officials jointly initially directed at urban areas under 250,000 in population (holmes, 1973). housing act of 1961 urban mass transportation was the housing act of 1961. this act was passed largely as a result of the growing financial difficulties with commuter rail services. the act inaugurated a small, low-interest loan program for acquisitions and capital the first piece of federal legislation to deal explicitly with improvements for mass transit systems and a demonstration program (washington center, 1970). assistance available for "preparation of comprehensive urban transportation surveys, studies, and plans to aid in solving problems of traffic congestion, facilitating the circulation of people and goods on metropolitan and other urban areas and reducing transportation needs." the act permitted federal aid to "facilitate comprehensive planning for urban development, including coordinated transportation systems, on a continuing basis." these provisions of the act amended the section 701 planning program that was created the act also contained a provision for making federal planning by the housing act of 1954. 37 chapter 4 urban transportation planning comes of age urban transportation planning came of age with the passage of the any federal-aid highway project in an urbanized area of 50,000 or more in population be based on a continuing, comprehensive urban transportation planning process carried out cooperatively by states and local governments. this was the first legislative mandate requiring planning as a condition to receiving federal capital assistance funds. the u.s. bureau of public roads (bpr) moved quickly to issue technical guidance interpreting the act's federal-aid highway act of 1962, which required that approval of provisions. what some have called its "golden age." most urban areas were planning their regional highway system and urban transportation through the mid 1960's urban transportation planning went through planning methodology had been designed to address this issue. the assistance and training to foster the adoption of this process and the new methodologies. these efforts completely transformed the manner in which urban transportation planning was performed. by the legislated deadline of july 1, 1965, all 224 then existing urbanized areas that fell under the 1962 act had a urban bpr carried out an extensive program of research, technical transportation planning process underway. need for a federal role in urban mass transportation. this role, this was also a period in which there was early recognition of the however, was to remain limited for a number of years to come. joint report on urban mass transportation in march 1962 a joint report on urban mass transportation was 39 submitted to president kennedy, at his request, by the secretary of commerce and the housing and home finance administrator (u.s. highways and mass transit, which were comparatively independent up congress, senate, 1962). this report integrated the objectives for to that point but growing closer through cooperative activities. the report was in large part based on a study completed in 1961 by the institute of public administration (ipa) entitled urban strongly recommended that urban transportation was a federal transportation and public policy (fitch, 1964). the ipa report concern and supported the need for transportation planning. planning, can be summarized by the following excerpt from the the general thrust of the report to congress, as it related to transmittal letter: "transportation is one of the key factors in shaping our cities. as our communities increasingly undertake deliberate measures to guide their development and renewal, we must be sure that transportation planning and construction are integral parts of general development planning and programming. one of our main recommendations is that federal aid for urban transportation should be made available only when urban communities have prepared or are actively preparing up-to-date general plans for the entire urban area which relate transportation plans to land-use and development plans. "the major objectives of urban transportation policy are the achievement of sound land-use patterns, the assurance of transportation facilities for all segments of the population, the improvement of overall traffic flow, and the meeting of total transportation needs at minimum cost. only a balanced transportation system can attain these goals - and in many urban areas this means an extensive mass transportation network fully integrated with the highway and street system. but mass 40 transportation in recent years experienced capital consumption rather than expansion. a cycle of fare increases and service cuts to offset loss of ridership followed by further declines in use points clearly to the need for a substantial contribution of public funds to support needed mass transportation improvements. we therefore recommend a new program of grants and loans for urban mass transportation" (u.s. congress, senate, 1962). president kennedy's transportation message in april 1962 president kennedy delivered his first message to related to urban transportation in the message drew upon the previously mentioned joint report. the president's message recognized the close relationship between the community development and the need to properly balance the use of private automobiles and mass transportation to help shape and serve urban areas. it also recognized the need to promote economic efficiency and livability of urban areas. it also recommended continued close cooperation congress on the subject of transportation. many of the ideas between the department of commerce and the housing and home finance administration (hhfa) (washington center, 1970). transportation and led to passage of two landmark pieces of this transportation message opened a new era in urban legislation: the federal-aid highway act of 1962 and the urban mass transportation act of 1964. federal-aid highway act of 1962 legislation to mandate urban transportation planning as a condition for receiving federal funds in urbanized areas. it asserted that federal concern in urban transportation was to be integrated with the federal-aid highway act of 1962 was the first piece of federal land development and provided a major stimulus to 41 urban transportation planning. section 9 of the act, which is now section 134 of title 23 states: "it is declared to be in the national interest to encourage and promote the development of transportation systems embracing various modes of transport in a manner that will serve the states and local communities efficiently and effectively" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1980a). this statement of policy directly followed from the recommendations of the sagamore conference and president kennedy's transportation message. moreover, the section directed the secretary of commerce to cooperate with the states: "...in the development of long-range highway plans and programs which are properly coordinated with plans for improvements in other affected forms of transportation and which are formulated with due consideration to their probable effect on the future development of the urban area..." (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1980a). construction projects be based upon a planning process, legislated the last sentence of the section which required that urban highway the planning requirement: "after july 1, 1965, the secretary shall not approve under section 105 of this title any programs for projects in any urban area of more than fifty thousand population unless he finds that such projects are based on a continuing, comprehensive transportation planning process carried out cooperatively by states and local communities in conformance with the objectives stated in this section" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1980a). two features of the act are particularly significant with respect to the organizational arrangements for carrying out the planning 42 process. first, it called for a planning process in urban areas rather than cities, which set the scale at the metropolitan or regional level. second, it called for the process to be carried on cooperatively by the states and local communities. because qualified planning agencies to mount such a transportation planning process were lacking in many urban areas, the bpr required the creation of planning agencies or organizational arrangements that would be capable of carrying out the required planning process. growing momentum of the highway program and the cooperative these planning organizations quickly came into being because of the financing of the planning process by the hhfa and the bpr (marple, 1969). planning and research funds to only those purposes. if not used in addition, the act restricted the use of the 1-1/2 percent for planning and research, the state would lose the funds. for construction. this provision created a permanent, assured funding source for planning and research activities. in addition, the act provided that a state could spend another 1/2 percent at previously, a state could request that these funds be used instead their option for planning and research activities. hershey conference on urban freeways in response to the growing concern about freeway construction in urban areas, the hershey conference on freeways in the urban setting was convened in june 1962 (freeways, 1962). it concluded, "freeways cannot be planned independently of the areas through which they pass. the planning concept should extend to the entire sector of the city within the environs of the freeway. the conference recommendations reinforced the need to integrate highway planning and urban development. the findings recognized that this planning should be done as a team effort that draws upon the skills of engineers, architects, 43 city planners, and other specialists. freeway planning must integrate the freeway with its surroundings. when properly planned, freeways provide an opportunity to shape and structure the urban community in a manner that meets the needs of the people who live, work, and travel in these areas. further, the planning effort should be carried out in a manner that involves participation by the community (freeways, 1962). implementation of the 1962 federal-aid highway act the bpr moved quickly to implement the planning requirements of the 1962 federal-aid highway act. instructional memorandum 50-263, published in march 1963 (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1963c) and later superseded by policy and procedure memorandum 50-9 (u.s. dept. of a "continuing, comprehensive, and cooperative" (3c) planning process. "cooperative" was defined to include not only cooperation between the federal, state, and local levels of government but also transportation, 1967a), interpreted the act's provisions related to among the various agencies within the same level of government. "continuing" referred to the need to periodically reevaluate and update a transportation plan. "comprehensive" was defined to include the basic ten elements of a 3c planning process for which inventories and analyses were required. (table 2) covered all aspects for organizing and carrying out the 3c planning these memoranda and further refinements and expansions upon them process. through its urban planning division, under garland e. marple, the computer programs, write procedural manuals and guides, teach training courses, and provide technical assistance. the effort was aimed at developing urbanized area planning organizations, bpr carried out a broad program to develop planning procedures and standardizing, computerizing and applying procedures largely 44 table 2 ten basic elements of a 3c planning process 1. economic factors affecting development 2. population 3. land use 4. transportation facilities including those for mass transportation 5. travel patterns 6. terminal and transfer facilities 7. traffic control features 8. zoning ordinances, subdivision regulations, building codes, etc. 9. financial resources 10. social and community-value factors, such as preservation of open space, parks and recreational facilities; preservation of historical sites and buildings; environmental amenities; and aesthetics. 45 created in the late 1950's, and disseminating knowledge of such procedures. steps had been pioneered by the urban transportation planning studies that were carried out during the 1950's. it was an empirical approach which required a substantial amount of data and several years to complete. the process consisted of: establishing an organization to carry out the planning process; development of local goals and objectives; surveys and inventories of existing conditions and facilities; analyses of current conditions and calibration of forecasting techniques; forecasting of future activity and travel; evaluation of alternative transportation networks resulting in a recommended transportation plan; staging of the transportation plan; and identification of resources to implement it. the product of these 3c planning studies was generally an elaborate report(s) describing the procedures, the bpr defined the various steps in a 3c planning process. these analyses, alternatives and recommended plans. released a stream of procedural manuals that became the technical to foster the adoption of these technical procedures, the bpr standards for many years to come: calibrating and testing a gravity model for any size urban area, (july 1963); calibrating and testing a gravity model with a small computer, (october 1963); traffic assignment manual, (june 1964); population forecasting methods, (june 1964); population, economic, and land use studies in urban transportation planning, (july 1964); the standard land use coding manual, (january 1965); the role of economic studies in urban transportation planning, (august 1965); traffic assignment and distribution for small urban areas, (september 1965), modal split- documentation of nine methods for estimating transit usage, (december 1966); and guidelines for trip generation analysis, (june 1967). the bpr developed a two-week "urban transportation planning 46 covered organizational issues and technical procedures for carrying course" that was directed at practicing planners and engineers. it out a 3c planning process as it had been conceptualized by the bpr. with lecture notes to keep the information current and to cover material not in manual form. in addition, personnel from the bpr provided hands-on technical assistance to state and local agencies the course used the bpr manuals as textbooks and supplemented them in the applying these new procedures to their own areas. techniques for performing the technical activities, and to provide technical assistance completely transformed the manner in which urban transportation planning was performed. by the legislated deadline of july 1, 1965, all the 224 existing urbanized areas which fell under the 1962 act had an urban transportation planning this effort to define the "3c planning process," to develop process underway (holmes, 1973). conventional urban travel forecasting process of data, analysis of data, forecasts of activity and travel, and evaluation of alternatives. central to this approach was the urban travel forecasting process. (figure 5) the process used mathematical models that allowed the simulation and forecasting of current and future travel. this permitted the testing and the 3c planning process included four technical phases: collection evaluation of alternative transportation networks. the four-step urban travel forecasting process consisted of trip generation, trip distribution, modal split, and traffic assignment. using actual survey data. these models were then used to forecast future travel. the forecasting process began with an estimate of the variables that determine travel patterns including the location these models were first calibrated to replicate existing travel and intensity of land use, social and 47 click here for graphic. 48 economic characteristics of the population, and the type and extent of transportation facilities in the area. next, these variables were used to estimate the number of trip origins and destinations in each subarea of a region (i.e. the traffic analysis zone), using a trip generation procedure. a trip distribution model was used to connect the trip ends into an origin-destination trip pattern. transit trips using a modal split model. the matrices of highway and transit trips were assigned to routes on the highway and transit networks, respectively, by means of a traffic assignment this matrix of total vehicle trips was divided into highway and model (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977). forecasts of input variables were used for the year for which the networks were being tested. travel forecasts were then prepared for each transportation alternative to determine traffic volumes and levels of service. usually only the modal split and traffic assignment models were rerun for additional networks after a future year forecast had been made for the first network. but in using these models to analyze future transportation networks, occasionally the trip distribution model was also rerun. capability. the first generation of computers had become available in the mid 1950's. the bpr had taken advantage of them and adapted a telephone routing algorithm for traffic assignments purposes that would operate on the ibm 704 computer. additional programs were developed to perform other functions. the second generation of computers, circa 1962, provided increased capabilities. the library of computer programs was rewritten for the ibm 709 computer travel forecasting on a regionwide scale required a large computing and then for the ibm 7090/94 system. the bpr worked with the bureau of standards in developing, modifying, and testing these programs. some programs were also developed for the ibm 1401 and 1620 computers. this effort was carried out over a number of years, and by 1967 the computer package contained about 49 60 programs (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977). the "conventional urban travel forecasting process," came quickly into widespread use. the procedures had been specifically tailored to the tasks of regionwide urban transportation planning and bpr this approach to travel forecasting, which later became known as provided substantial assistance and oversight in applying them. urban transportation study groups that chose not to use them had to moreover, there were no other procedures generally available and develop their own procedures and computer programs. southeastern wisconsin regional planning commission created to conduct the urban transportation planning process in most urbanized areas, ad hoc organizational arrangements were required by the federal-aid highway act of 1962 and the bureau of transportation planning process was carried out by existing regional planning agencies. this was the case for the urbanized public's guidelines. in some urbanized areas, however, the urban areas of milwaukee, racine and kenosha in southeastern wisconsin. was created under state enabling legislation by executive order of the southeastern wisconsin regional planning commission (sewrpc) the governor of wisconsin in 1960 upon petition of the county boards of the seven constituent counties. it was directed to prepare and adopt master plans for the physical development of the southeastern wisconsin region on the basis of studies and analyses. for six years without pay, three from each county, with one member from each county appointed by the county board and the other two the commission itself was formed with 21 citizen members, serving members appointed by the governor (bauer, 1963). the regional land use-transportation study, which began in 1963, 50 was the commission's first long-range planning effort. the staff proceeded under the guidance of the intergovernmental coordinating and the technical coordinating committees. (figure 6) the 3 1/2 year, $2 million study covered the development of goals and objectives, inventory of existing conditions, preparation and analysis of alternative plans, and selection and adoption of the preferred plan (southeastern wisconsin regional planning plans for the year 1990. the "controlled existing trend plan" continued the low-density residential development trend with the imposition of land use controls to minimize leap-frog development commission, 1965-66). sewrpc prepared three alternative land use and reduce encroachment on environmentally sensitive areas. the "corridor plan" concentrated medium and high density residential development along transportation corridors interlocked with recreation and agriculture wedges. the "satellite city plan" focused new residential development into existing outlying communities in the region. a transportation plan was developed for each of the land use plans which primarily consisted of the existing plus committed highway and transit systems with additions, including an extensive bus rapid transit system with an exclusive busway. full commission and eventually by most of the county boards and local units of government. in 1966, sewrpc began the continuing phase of the land use-transportation study which provided support to implement the plan, monitored changes in the region and progress in implementing the adopted plan, and conducted periodic the recommended "controlled existing trend plan" was adopted by the reappraisals of the plan in light of the changes in the region. studies including those related to: watershed development and water quality, air quality, highway functional classification, public in the ensuing years, sewrpc conducted a wide range of planning transportation, parks and open space, port development, 51 click here for graphic. 52 libraries, airport use, and prepared many local plans in cooperation with the local jurisdictions. moreover, it provided extensive technical assistance to local governments on a variety of planning issues. highway planning program manual as part of its extensive efforts to provide technical guidance for carrying out highway planning, the bpr developed the highway technical information on highway planning practice and make it readily available. much of that information on highway planning planning program manual.. the manual was designed to consolidate practice and many of the manuals had been developed by the bpr. the highway planning program manual was first issued in august 1963 (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1963d). it was directed primarily at the highway engineers in bpr's field offices who needed information to administer highway planning activities that were being carried out by state highway departments and by urban transportation planning groups with federal-aid highway planning funds. it also provided valuable information to those performing the actual planning activities in state and local agencies. which included: administration and control, highway inventory, mapping, traffic counting, classifying and weighing, travel studies, motor vehicle registration and taxes, highway fiscal data, the manual covered the basic elements of a highway planning program road life expectancy and costs, and urban transportation planning. master plan for highway development. this was to consist of a functionally classified highway system, an estimate of highway needs, a long range development program to meet the needs with priorities and, a financial plan to pay for the development the goal for the overall highway planning process was to develop a program. 53 was equally detailed. it covered the various aspects of the urban transportation planning process including: organization, use of computers, origin destination studies, population studies, economic studies, land use, street inventory and classification, evaluation of traffic services, traffic engineering studies, public transportation, terminal facilities, travel forecasting, traffic assignment, developing the transportation plan, plan the section of the manual devoted urban transportation planning to implementation, and the continuing planning process. the federal highway administration continued to update the highway version of relevant procedure manuals, until the early 1980's. the planning program manual and add appendices, which included recent manual was eventually rescinded by fhwa in 1985. urban mass transportation act of 1964 the first real effort to provide federal assistance for urban mass transportation development was the passage of the urban mass spirit of president kennedy's transportation message, was "...to encourage the planning and establishment of areawide urban mass transportation systems needed for economical and desirable urban transportation act of 1964. the objective of the act, still in the development" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979b). the net project cost of construction, reconstruction, or acquisition of mass transportation facilities and equipment. net project cost was defined as that portion of the total project cost that could not be financed readily from transit revenues. however, the federal share was to be held to 50 percent in those areas that had not completed their comprehensive planning process, that is, had not produced a plan. all federal funds had to be channeled through public agencies. transit projects were to be initiated the act authorized federal capital grants for up to two-thirds of locally. 54 a program of research, development, and demonstrations was also authorized by the 1964 act. the objective of this program was to "... assist in the reduction of transportation needs, the improvement of mass transportation service, or the contribution of such service toward meeting total urban transportation needs at minimum cost" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979b). legislation. not more than $150 million per year was authorized under the 1964 act and the actual appropriations fell short of even congress, however, did not authorize much money to carry out this that amount (smerk, 1968). urban development simulation models interest in understanding urban phenomena and in constructing urban development simulation models. such models would enable planners to evaluate alternative urban development patterns, and to produce information on population, employment, and land use for use in estimating travel and transportation requirements. land use simulation models developed in early urban transportation studies were rudimentary and focused on the effect of transportation access with the growth of urban transportation planning came an increasing on the location of activities (swerdloff and stowers, 1966). during this period many cities were actively engaged in developing work plans to eliminate slums and urban blight through community and home finance agency (hhfa). these crps provided an additional impetus for the development of urban simulation models. it was as renewal programs (crps) that were partially funded by the housing part of one of these crps that a significant breakthrough occurred. for the pittsburgh regional planning association as part of a between 1962-63, ira s. lowry developed a land use allocation model modeling system to generate alternatives and aid decisionmaking (lowry, 1964). 55 the "lowry model," as it came to be known, was the first large scale and complete urban simulation model to become operational. the model was attractive because of the simplicity of its causal structure, the opportunity to expand it, and its operationality (goldner, 1971). the underlying concept of the model used economic base theory in which employment was divided into "basic" employment that was devoted to goods and services exported outside the region, and "retail" or "non-basic" employment that served local markets. employment by the model on the basis of its accessibility to households. households were located on the basis of accessibility to jobs and availability of vacant land. the model proceeded in an basic employment was located outside the model, while non-basic iterative fashion until equilibrium was reached (putman, 1979). model development during the mid-1960's, much of which concentrated on elaborations and enhancements of the original lowry model concepts (goldner, 1971; harris, 1965; putman, 1979). the lowry the conceptual framework developed by lowry stimulated an era of model evolved through further development in pittsburgh and the san of researchers. most of this work, however, did not result in models that did not become operational (goldner, 1971). after a period of dormancy, work began anew and resulted in the development francisco bay area simulation study, and other efforts by a number of the integrated transportation and land-use package (itlup). incorporated the effects of transportation and land use and the this set of models performed lad use activity allocation feedback effects of land use on transportation (putman, 1983). williamsburg conference on highways and urban development adequately evaluating social and community values. few planning studies had developed goal-based evaluation methodologies. a by 1965 there was concern that planning processes were not second conference on highways and urban development was held in 56 williamsburg, virginia, to discuss this problem (highways and urban must be directed toward raising urban standards and enhancing aggregate community values. transportation values such as safety, economy, and comfort are part of the total set of community values development, 1965). the conference concluded that transportation and should be weighted appropriately. goals and objectives that should be used to evaluate urban transportation plans. it emphasized that many values may not be quantifiable but, nonetheless, should not be ignored. the conference also endorsed the concept of making maximum use of existing transportation facilities through traffic management and the conference resolutions highlighted the need to identify urban land use controls. 57 58 chapter 5 improved intergovernmental coordination and transportation projects expanded, there was increasing concern over the uncoordinated manner in which these project were being carried out. each of these federal programs had separate grant requirements which were often development with little regard to the requirements of other programs. projects proceeded through the approval and implementation process uncoordinated with other as the number and scope of federal programs for urban development projects that were occurring in the same area. problem. first, was an attempt to better integrate urban development and transportation programs at the federal level by bringing them together in two new cabinet level departments, hud and dot. second, was the creation of a project review process to improve intergovernmental coordination at both the federal and local levels. states and local governments also moved to address this problem by consolidating functions and responsibilities. many states created their own departments of transportation. in addition, states and local communities created broader, multi- functional planning agencies to better coordinate and plan areawide during this period, several actions were taken to alleviate this development. the urban transportation planning process transitioned into the "continuing" phase as most urban areas completed their first plans. traffic congestion using techniques such as reserved bus lanes, traffic engineering improvements, and fringe parking lots. it was also during this time that national concern was focused upon the problem of highway safety and the enormous cost of traffic there was a new interest in low capital approaches to reducing accidents. environmental issues became more important 59 with legislation addressing the preservation of natural areas and historic sites, and providing relocation assistance for households and businesses. housing and urban development act of 1965 the housing and urban development act of 1965 created the coordinate urban programs at the federal level. in addition, the act amended the section 701 urban planning assistance program established under the housing act of 1954 by authorizing grants to department of housing and urban development (hud) to better be made to "...organizations composed of public officials whom he (the secretary of hud) finds to be representative of the political jurisdictions within a metropolitan area or urban region..." for the purposes of comprehensive planning (washington center, 1970). organizations controlled by elected rather than appointed officials. it gave impetus to the formation of such organizations as councils of governments (cogs). it also encouraged local governments to cooperate in addressing their problems in a regional this provision encouraged the formation of regional planning context. 1966 amendments to the urban mass transportation act number of amendments were passed in 1966. one created the technical studies program, which provided federal assistance up to a two-thirds federal matching share for planning, engineering, and designing of urban mass transportation projects or other similar to fill several gaps in the 1964 urban mass transportation act, a technical activities leading to application for a capital grant. training. a third authorized a project to study and prepare a another section authorized grants to be made for management program of research for developing new systems of urban 60 transportation. this section resulted in a report to congress in 1968, tomorrow's transportation: new systems for the urban future (cole, 1968), which recommended a long-range balanced program for research on hardware, planning, and operational improvements. it was this study that first brought to public attention many new systems such as dial-a-bus, personal rapid transit, dual mode, pallet systems, and tracked air-cushioned vehicle systems. this study was the basis for numerous research efforts to develop and refine new urban transportation technologies that would improve on existing ones. highway and motor vehicle safety acts of 1966 above 1963, and the death rate was increasing. in march of 1965, in 1964, highway deaths amounted to 48,000 persons, 10 percent newly senator abraham ribicoff, chairman of the subcommittee on held hearings on the issue of highway safety to focus national concern on this national tragedy. ralph nader who was already working on highway safety volunteered to assist senator ribicoff's committee. he provided much material to the committee based on his executive reorganization of the government operations committee, research and a book that he was writing on traffic safety (insurance institute for highway safety, 1986). company had only spent $1.25 million on safety in the previous in the july hearings, general motors" president admitted that his year. following that disclosure, president johnson ordered package. in november 1965, nader's book, unsafe at any speed, was published with criticism of both the automobile industry and the traffic safety establishment. in february 1966, president johnson told the american trial lawyers association that highway deaths were second only to the vietnam war as the "gravest problem before special assistant joseph califano to develop a transportation the nation." a month 61 later, the president's message requested the congress to establish a department of transportation. his message also outlined a national traffic safety act to require the establishment of motor vehicle standards, provide for state grants in aid for safety programs, and fund traffic safety research. by august, both housed unanimously passed a motor vehicle standards bill and, with only 3 dissenting votes in the senate, passed state program legislation. the final bills were signed by president johnson on september 9, 1966. the national traffic and motor vehicle safety act of 1966 established the national traffic safety agency in the department of standards for motor vehicles and equipment, authorized research and development, and expanded the national driver register of individuals whose licenses had been denied, terminated, or withdrawn. according to the act, each standard was required to be practical, meet the need for motor vehicle safety, and stated in objective terms. in prescribing standards, the secretary was required to consider: (1) relevant available motor vehicle safety data, (2) whether the proposed standard in appropriate for the particular motor vehicle or equipment for-which it is prescribed, and (3) the extent to which the standard contributed to carrying commerce. it required the establishment of minimum safety out the purposes of the act (comptroller general, 1976). the highway safety act of 1966 established the national highway provide a coordinated national highway safety program through financial assistance to the states. under this act, states were required to establish highway safety programs in accordance with safety agency in the department of commerce. it was designed to federal standards. federal funds were made available under section 402, to be allocated by population and highway mileage, to assist in financing these programs with a 75 percent federal and 25 percent matching ratio (insurance institute for highway safety, 1986). 62 the two safety agencies were combined by executive order 11357 into the national highway safety bureau in the newly created dot. by 1969, the bureau, under dr. william haddon jr., had established 29 motor vehicle standards and 13 highway safety standards and all states had established highway safety programs. by the end of 1972, the agency had issued a total of 43 motor vehicle standards, covering vehicle accident prevention and passenger protection, and 18 highway safety standards, covering vehicle inspection, registration, motorcycle safety, driver education, traffic laws and records, accident investigation and reporting, pupil transportation and police traffic services (insurance institute for highway safety, 1986). comprehensive national highway safety program to reduce deaths and these two safety acts provided the basis for a practical, injuries caused by motor vehicles. department of transportation act of 1966 coordinate transportation programs and to facilitate development and improvement of coordinated transportation service utilizing private enterprise to the maximum extent feasible. the department of transportation act declared that the nation required fast, safe, efficient, and convenient transportation at the lowest cost consistent with other national objectives including the conservation of natural resources. dot was directed to provide leadership in the identification of transportation problems and solutions, stimulate new technological advances, encourage cooperation among all interested parties, and recommend national in 1966 the department of transportation (dot) was created to policies and programs to accomplish these objectives. section 4(f) of the act required the preservation of natural areas. it prohibited the use of land for a transportation project from a park, recreation area, wildlife and waterfowl refuge, or 63 historic site unless there was no feasible and prudent alternative and the project was planned in such a manner as to minimize harm to the area. this was the earliest statutory language directed at minimizing the negative effects of transportation construction projects on the natural environment. for urban mass transportation between dot and hud. it took more than a year for dot and hud to come to an agreement on their the dot act left unclear, however, the division of responsibility respective responsibilities. this agreement, known as assumed responsibility for mass transportation capital grants, technical studies, and managerial training grant programs subject to hud certification of the planning requirements for capital grant applications. research and development (r&d) was divided up. dot assumed r&d responsibility for improving the operation of conventional transit systems and hud assumed r&d responsibility for reorganization plan no. 2, took effect in july 1968. under it, dot urban transportation as it related to comprehensive planning. joint responsibility was assigned for r&d on advanced technology systems. the reorganization plan also created the urban mass transportation administration (umta) (miller, 1972). national historic preservation act of 1966 numerous public works and urban renewal projects, federal preservation law applied only to a handful of nationally significant properties. as a result, federal projects destroyed or damaged thousands of historic properties. congress recognized that new legislation was needed to protect the many other properties through the 1950's and 1960's, while the federal government funded that were being harmed by federal activities (advisory council on historic preservation, 1986). the national historic preservation act of 1966 was passed to address these concerns. the act established the advisory council 64 on historic preservation to provide advice on national preservation policy. section 106 of the act required federal agencies to take into account the effects of their undertakings on historic preservation, and to afford the council the opportunity to comment on such undertakings. section 110 required federal agencies to identify and protect historic properties under their control. a federal agency funding or otherwise involved in a proposed project to identify historic properties that might be affected by the project and find acceptable means to avoid or mitigate any adverse impact. federal agencies were to consult with the council the section 106 review process established by the council required and state historic preservation officers, appointed by the governors, in carrying out this process. demonstration cities and metropolitan development act of 1966 highways, transit, and other construction projects, there was a with the growth in federal grant programs for urban renewal, need for a mechanism to coordinate these projects. the enacted to ensure that federal grants were not working at cross purposes. section 204 of that act was significant in asserting federal interest in improving the coordination of public facility construction projects to obtain maximum effectiveness of federal demonstration cities and metropolitan development act of 1966 was spending and to relate such projects to areawide development plans. construction of facilities be submitted to an areawide planning agency for review and comment. the areawide agency was required to be composed of local elected officials. the objective was to encourage the coordination of planning and construction of physical section 204 required that all applications for the planning and facilities in urban areas. section 204 was also designed 65 to stimulate operating agencies with narrow functional responsibilities to examine the relationship of their projects to areawide plans for urban growth. procedures to implement this act were issued by the bureau of the budget in circular no. 82, "coordination of federal aids in metropolitan areas under section 204 of the demonstration cities and metropolitan development act of 1966" (bureau of the budget, 1967). established new planning agencies or reorganized existing agencies in response to these review requirements, many urban areas to include elected officials on their policy boards. by the end of 1969, only six metropolitan lacked an areawide review agency (washington center, 1970). dartmouth conference on urban development models transportation planning to provide forecasts of population, land-use planning models were developed as an adjunct to employment, and land-use for transportation forecasting models. stimulated by newly available computers and advances in operations research and systems analysis (putman, 1979). developments were from the mid 1950's there was rapid development in the field discussed at a seminar at the university of pennsylvania in october 1964 that was documented in a special issue of the journal of the american institute of planners (harris, 1965). by 1967 the land-use evaluation committee of the highway research in the field, which was progressing in an uncoordinated fashion. a conference was held in dartmouth, new hampshire, in june 1967 to board determined that there was need for another assessment of work identify the areas of research that were most needed (hemmens, 1968). the conferees recommended that agencies sponsoring research on land use models, generally the federal government, expand the 66 capabilities of their in-house staff to handle these models. they recommended steps to improve data acquisition and handling. recommended. conferees recommended that research on the behavioral aspects of the individual decision units be conducted. concern was expressed about bridging the gap between modelers and decisionmakers. professional standards for design, calibration and further research on broader models that included social goals was use of models was also encouraged (hemmens, 1968). models did not perform up to the expectations of researchers and decisionmakers, particularly at the small area level. modelers had the early optimism in the field faded as the land development underestimated the task of simulating complex urban phenomena. that had to meet unreasonable time deadlines. (putman, 1979) models had become more complex with larger data requirements as submodels were added to encompass more aspects of the urban development process. they were too costly to construct and operate, and many still did not produce usable results. by the late 1960's land-use modeling activity in the united states entered a period of dormancy many of these modeling efforts were performed by planning agencies that continued until the mid 1970's. reserved bus lanes engineers came under increasing criticism for providing underpriced facilities that competed unfairly with transit service. critics were also concerned that the 3c planning process was not giving sufficient attention to transit options in the development of long- as construction of the interstate highway progressed, highway range urban transportation plans. the first official response to this criticism came in april 1964 in a speech by e. h. holmes, director of planning for the bureau of public roads. mr. holmes stated, "since over three-quarters of transit patrons ride on rubber tires, not on steel rails, transit 67 has to be for highways, not against them. and vice versa, highways have to be for transit, not against it, for the more that travelers patronize transit the easier will be the highway engineer's job." service. this would increase bus operating speeds, reduce their travel times, and thereby make bus service more competitive with car travel. the bpr position was that the reservation of a lane for buses was reasonable if its usage by bus passengers exceeded the number of persons that would be moved in the same period in he went on to advocate the use of freeways by buses in express cars, for example, 3,000 persons per hour for a lane of freeway (holmes, 1964). this position was formalized in instructional memorandum (im) 2113- 67, "reserved bus lanes," issued by the federal highway the warrant for reserving of lanes for buses, the im stated the warrant for preferential use of lanes by buses. under preferential use, other vehicles would be allowed to use the lane but only in such numbers that they do not degrade the travel speeds of the buses. the number of other vehicles would be controlled by metering their flow onto the lane. the total number of persons using the preferential lanes was to be greater than would be administration (fhwa) in august 1967. in addition to reiterating accommodated by opening the lanes to general traffic. bus treatments. expenditures for bus priority projects on arterial highways, including loading platforms and shelters, became eligible for federal-aid highway funds under the traffic operations program to improve capacity and safety (topics), which was initiated as an experimental program in 1967. reserved lanes for buses on freeways the fhwa actively promoted the use of exclusive and preferential were eligible under the regular federal-aid highway programs. many urban areas adopted bus priority techniques to increase the carrying capacity of highway facilities and make transit service 68 more attractive at a limited cost. by 1973 one study reported on more than 200 bus priority projects in the united states and elsewhere. these included busways on exclusive rights-of-way and on freeways, reserved freeway lanes and ramps, bus malls, reserved lanes on arterial streets, traffic signal preemption, and supporting park-and-ride lots and central city terminals (levinson, 1973). national highway needs studies the expected completion of the interstate highway system in the mid 1970's lead to consideration of new directions for the federal-aid highway program. recognizing the need for information on which to formulate future highway programs, the u.s. senate, in section 3 of the senate joint resolution 81 (approved august 28, 1965) called for a biennial reporting of highway needs beginning in 1968. in april 1965, the u.s. bureau of public roads had requested the states to prepare estimates of future highway needs for the period 1965-85. the states were given only a few months to prepare the estimates and they relied upon available data and rapid estimating techniques. the results were documented in the 1968 national the anticipated highway needs was a staggering sum. it included highway needs report. the estimated cost of $294 billion to meet another 40,000 of freeways in addition to the 41,000 miles in the report recommended the undertaking of a nationwide functional highway classification study as the basis for realigning the interstate system (u.s. congress, 1968a). the supplement to the federal-aid highway systems (u.s. congress, 1968b). the past. the supplement recommended that a larger share of the 1968 report focused greater attention on urban areas than in federal-aid highway funds should be made available to urban areas. as a means to accomplish this, the supplement discussed expanding 69 the urban extensions of the primary and secondary highway systems to include all principal arterial routes into a federal-aid urban system. to overcome the difficulties of urban area decisionmaking among fragmented local governments, it suggested requiring the establishment of areawide agencies to develop five-year capital improvement programs. the agencies would be governed by locally elected officials (u.s. congress, 1968b). funds for a parking research and development projects, and for construction of fringe parking facilities. the establishment of a revolving fund for advance acquisition of right-of-way was recommended as well. the supplement advocated joint development adjacent to or using airspace above or below highways. such the supplement also recommended the use of federal-aid highway projects should be coordinated jointly by dot and hud (u.s. congress, 1968b). many of the recommendations in the supplement to the 1968 national highway needs report were incorporated into the federal-aid highway systematic nationwide functional highway classification study in acts of 1968 and 1970. section 17 of the 1968 act called for a cooperation with state highway departments and local governments. the manual for this functional classification study stated that, "all existing public roads and streets within a state are to be classified on the basis of the most logical usage of existing facilities to serve present travel and land use" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1969b). this was the first major study to collect detailed functional system information on a nationwide basis. the results of the 1968 functional classification study which covered existing facilities under current conditions of travel and land use. the results showed that there was wide variation among the supplement to the 1970 national highway needs report detailed states in the coincidence of highways classified functionally and 70 which federal-aid system they were on. this disparity was greater in urban areas than in rural areas. the report demonstrated that arterial highways carried the bulk of highway travel. for example, in urban areas in 1968, arterial highways constituted 19 percent of the miles of facilities and carried 75 percent of the vehicle miles of travel (u.s. congress, 1970). (figure 7) the 1970-1990 functional classification study. it combined a projected functional classification for 1990 with a detailed inventory and needs estimate for all functional classes including local roads and streets. it recommended the realignment of federal-aid highway systems based upon functional usage in a subsequent year such as 1980. this recommendation for realignment was incorporated into the federal-aid highway act of 1973. highway needs were estimated for the twenty-year period to 1990 under nationally uniform "minimum tolerable conditions". of the estimated $592 billion in needs, 43 percent were on federal-aid systems as they existed in 1970. over 50 percent of these needs were considered to be "backlog," that is, requiring immediate the 1972-- national highway needs report documented the results of attention (u.s. congress 1972b and 1972c). were reported in the 1972 report. the 1974 highway needs study was the 1974 national highway needs updated the needs estimates that conducted as part of the 1974 national transportation study. the 1974 highway report analyzed the sensitivity of the needs estimates to the changes of reduced forecasted travel and a lower level of service than a minimum tolerable conditions. the report clarified that the highway needs estimates are dependent upon the specific set of standards of highway service and highway design on which they are based. the nations highway system and quantify the nature and scope of the highway needs studies represented a ongoing process to assess future highway requirements. the studies were carried out as 71 click here for graphic. 72 cooperative efforts of the federal, state and local governments. considerable credibility to the studies. consequently, the highway needs reports had a major influence on highway legislation, and the the extensive involvement of state and local governments lent structure and funding of highway programs (u.s. congress, 1975). federal-aid-highway act of 1968 the federal-aid highway act of 1968 established the traffic authorized $200 million each for fiscal years 1970 and 1971. the federal matching share was set at 50 percent. the program was designed to reduce traffic congestion and facilitate the flow of operations program to improve capacity and safety (topics). it traffic in urban areas. prior to the act, the bureau of public which established guidelines for topics, divided urban streets into two categories. those on the federal-aid primary and secondary roads had initiated topics as an experimental program. im 21-767, systems were considered type 1. other major streets were under type 2. only traffic operations improvements were allowed on type 2 systems (gakenheimer and meyer, 1977). the topics program grew out of a long history of the bpr's efforts to expand the use of traffic engineering techniques. in 1959, the effectiveness of various traffic management methods when applied in bpr sponsored the wisconsin avenue study to demonstrate the a coordinated fashion (u.s. dept. of commerce, 1962). planning process. by october 1969 there were 160 cities actively involved in topics and another 96 cities in preliminary negotiations expected to result in active projects. even so, the level of planning detail for topics projects was not totally topics projects were to result from the 3c urban transportation compatible with the regional scale of the planning process (gakenheimer and meyer, 1977). 73 at $100 million per year. but the federal-aid highway act of 1973 ended further authorizations and merged the topics systems into the new federal-aid urban system. topics had accomplished its objective of increasing the acceptance of traffic engineering techniques as a means of improving the efficiency of the urban transportation system. it also played an important role in the topics program was re-authorized for fiscal years 1972 and 1973 encouraging the concept of traffic management (gakenheimer and meyer, 1977). in addition to launching the topics program, the federal-aid protect the environment and reduce the negative effects of highway construction. the act repeated the requirement in section 4(f) of the department of transportation act of 1966 on the preservation of public park and recreation lands, wildlife and waterfowl refuges, and historic sites to clarify that the provision applied to highways. moreover the act required public hearings on the economic, social, and environmental effects of proposed highway projects and their consistency with local urban goals and objectives. the act also established the highway beautification program. in addition a highway relocation assistance program was authorized to provide payments to households and businesses displaced by construction projects. additionally, a revolving fund for the advanced acquisition of right-of-way was established to minimize future dislocations due to highway construction and reduce the cost of land and clearing it. also, the act authorized funds highway act of 1968 incorporated several provisions designed to for a fringe parking demonstration program. concern for environmental quality and for ameliorating the negative many of the provisions of the act were early responses to the effects of highway construction. 74 "continuing" urban transportation planning their 3c planning process. the federal highway administration turned its attention to the "continuing" aspect of the planning by 1968 most urbanized areas had completed or were well along in process. in may 1968, im 50-4-68, "operations plans for required the preparation of an operations plan for continuing transportation planning in these areas. the objective was to maintain the responsiveness of planning to the needs of local areas continuing" urban transportation planning" was issued. the im and to potential changes (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1968). perform continuing planning, including: the organizational structure; scope of activities and the agencies that were responsible; a description of the surveillance methodology to identify changes in land development and travel demand; a description of land use and travel forecasting procedures; and work the operations plans were to address the various items needed to remaining on the ten basic elements of the 3c planning process (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1968). guidelines were provided identifying the five elements considered essential for a continuing planning process. (figure 8) the "surveillance, element focused on monitoring changes in the area in development, sociodemographic characteristics, and travel. "reappraisal, dealt with three levels of review of the transportation forecasts and plan to determine if they were still valid. every five years the plan and forecast were to be updated to retain a 20-year time horizon. the third element, "service," was to assist agencies in the implementation of the plan. the "procedural development element emphasized the need to upgrade analysis techniques. last was the publication of an "annual report" on these activities as a means of communicating with local officials and citizens (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1968). 75 click here for graphic. 76 extensive training and technical assistance was provided by the fhwa to shift urban transportation planning into a continuing mode of operation. intergovernmental cooperation act of 1968 the forerunner of much more extensive legislation, adopted in 1968, designed to coordinate federal grant-in-aid programs at federal and state levels. the intergovernmental cooperation act of 1968 required that federal agencies notify the governors or legislatures section 204 of the demonstration cities and metropolitan act was of the purpose and amounts of any grants-in-aid to their states. the purpose of this requirement was to make it possible for states to plan more effectively for their overall development (washington center, 1970). under state enabling legislation. it provided that in the absence of substantial reasons to the contrary, federal grants shall be made to general purpose units of government rather than special purpose agencies. the act also transferred administration of these intergovernmental coordination requirements from hud to the bureau the act required that the areawide planning agency be established of the budget. bureau of the budget's circular no. a-95 to implement the 1968 intergovernmental cooperation act, the bureau of the budget issued circular no. a-95, "evaluation, review, and coordination of federal assistance programs and projects," in july 1969 (bureau of the budget, 1969), which superseded circular no. a- 82 (bureau of the budget, 1967). this circular required that the governor of each state designate a "clearinghouse" at the state level and for each metropolitan area. the function of these clearinghouses was to review and comment on projects proposed for federal-aid in terms of their compatibility 77 with comprehensive plans and to coordinate among agencies having plans and programs that might be affected by the projects. these clearinghouses had to be empowered under state or local laws to perform comprehensive planning in an area (washington center, 1970). the circular established a project notification and review system (pnrs) which specified how the review and coordination process would be carried out and the amount of time for each step in the process. (figure 9) the pnrs contained an "early warning" feature that required that a local applicant for a federal grant or loan notify the state and local clearinghouses at the time it decided to seek assistance. the clearinghouse had 30 days to indicate further interest in the project or to arrange to provide project coordination. this regulation was designed to alleviate the problem many review agencies had of learning of an application only after it had been prepared, and thereby having little opportunity to help shape it (washington center, 1970). the process through which planning for urban areas should be accomplished. its emphasis was not on substance but on process and on the intergovernmental linkages required to carry out the circular no. a-95 provided the most definitive federal statement of process. program coordination accelerated the creation of broader multi- the various acts and regulations to improve intergovernmental functional agencies. at the state level, 39 departments of transportation had been created by 1977. most of the departments had multimodal planning, programming, and coordinating functions. planning to be performed by comprehensive planning agencies, at the local level, there was a growing trend for transportation generally those designated as the a-95 clearinghouse (advisory commission, 1974). 78 click here for graphic. 79 80 chapter 6 the environment and citizen involvement environmental quality put considerable pressure on the planning process and its ability to adapt to change. public attention became focused on the issues of air and water pollution; dislocation of homes and businesses; preservation of parkland, wildlife refuges, and historic sites; and the overall ecological during the decade of the 1960's, the growing concern for balance in communities and their capacity to absorb disruption. their communities without their views being considered. the federal role in these matters, which had begun modestly in previous moreover, citizens were concerned that changes were being made to years, broadened and deepened during this period. citizen participation and the two-hearing process for highways public hearings. it became clear that citizens could not effectively contribute to a highway decision by the time the project had already been designed. many of the concerns related to the basic issue of whether to build the highway project at all and citizen reaction to highway projects usually was most vocal at the consideration of alternative modes of transportation. consequently, in early 1969, the federal highway administration (fhwa) revised policy and procedure memorandum (ppm) 20-8, "public hearings and location approval" (u.s. department of transportation, 1969a). replacing the previous single hearing, which occurred late in the project development process. the first "corridor public hearing" was to be held before the route location decision was made and was it established a two-hearing process for highway projects, designed to afford citizens the opportunity to comment on the need 81 for and location of the highway project. the second "highway design public hearing" was to focus on the specific location and design features. this ppm also required the consideration of social, economic, and environmental effects prior to submission of a project for federal-aid. adequate opportunity for citizen involvement and, worse, provided a difficult atmosphere for dialogue. in late 1969 the basic guidelines for the 3c planning process were amended to require citizen participation in all phases of the planning process from it was recognized that even a two-hearing process did not provide the setting of goals through the analysis of alternatives. consequently, it became the responsibility of the planning agency to seek out public views. national environmental policy act of 1969 back to the passage of the air quality control act of 1955, which directed the surgeon general to conduct research to abate air pollution. through a series of acts since that time, the federal government's involvement in environmental matters broadened and the federal government's concern for environmental issues dated deepened. in 1969 a singularly important piece of environmental legislation was passed, the national environmental policy act of 1969 (nepa). in that it enunciated for the first time a broad national policy to prevent or eliminate damage to the environment. the act stated that it was national policy to "encourage productive and enjoyable this act presented a significant departure from prior legislation harmony between man and his environment." interdisciplinary approach to the planning and decisionmaking that federal agencies were required under the act to use a systematic affected the environment. it also required that an environmental 82 impact statement (eis) be prepared for all legislation and major federal actions that would affect the environment significantly. the proposed action, unavoidable impacts, alternatives to the action, the relationship between short-term and long-term impacts, and irretrievable commitments of resources. the federal agency was to seek comments on the action and its impacts from affected the eis was to contain information on the environmental impacts of jurisdictions and make all information public. implement the policy and advise the president on environmental the act also created the council on environmental quality to matters. environmental quality improvement act of 1970 the environmental quality improvement act of 1970 was passed as a companion to the nepa. it established the office of environmental charged with assisting federal agencies in evaluating present and quality under the council of environmental quality. the office was proposed programs, and with promoting research on the environment. reversal in over a decade of the trend to decentralize decisionmaking to the state and local levels of government. it required the federal government to make the final determination on the trade-off between facility improvements and environmental quality. further, it created a complicated and expensive process by requiring the preparation of an eis and the seeking of comments from all concerned agencies. in this manner, the acts actually created a new planning process in parallel with the existing urban these two acts dealing with the environment marked the first transportation planning process. 83 nationwide personal transportation study truck use. between 1935 and 1940, and again during the 1950's, a number of states conducted motor vehicle use studies on the earlier national surveys of travel were limited to automobile and characteristics of motor vehicle ownership, users and travel (bostick, messer and steele, 1954; and bostick 1963). during 1961, the u.s. bureau of the census conducted the national automobile use characteristics of motor vehicle ownership and use, and the journey to work. income and other household data were available to relate study of 5,000 households for bpr. the survey covered to the travel and automobile information (bostick, 1966). efforts and was designed to obtain current information on national patterns of passenger travel. the npts surveyed households the nationwide personal transportation study (npts) grew out these covering all person trips by all modes and for all trip purposes. the npts was first conducted in 1969 (dept. of transportation, 1972-1974) and was repeated at approximately seven year intervals (i.e. 1977, 1983, 1990). the first three surveys were conducted by the u.s. bureau of the census for dot using home interviews. the 1990 npts was conducted by a private contractor using computer- assisted telephone interviewing (cati) and random digit dialing to allow for unlisted telephone numbers. since cati was less expensive than home interviews, the sample size for the npts could be increased to 18,000 households after it had declined from that number in 1977 to 6500 in 1983. mpo's were also allowed to purchase additional npts samples for their areas, and this added 3,800 households. trips made by household members on the day prior to the interview, and to provide less detail on longer trips made for the previous respondents were asked to report in considerable detail on all two-week period. information was also collected on the 84 socioeconomic characteristics if the household, vehicles owned, journey-to-work characteristics, and driving done as a part of the job. the npts provided national statistics on person travel with some disaggregation by standard metropolitan statistical areas (smsa) size groupings. it provided information on average daily travel by household members including trip purpose, mode, trip length, vehicle occupancy, time of day, and day of the week. important national trends including the significant increase in automobile ownership, declining household size, growth in vmt per household, continuing decline of the work trip fraction of travel, increasing use of light trucks for household travel, and the relative constancy of annual vmt per vehicle even with major increases in vmt per person. (table 3) in terms of modal distribution of travel, the private vehicle share grew steadily by comparing successive surveys, the npts quantified a number of while vehicle occupancy declined (liss, 1991). analyzing the nation's travel patterns. it allowed the tracking of changes in key household travel characteristics and has been used the npts has become a unique and valuable data resource for at the federal as well as local levels. clean air act amendments of 1970 position of the federal government to make final decisions the clean air act amendments of 1970 reinforced the central affecting the environment. this act created the environmental standards. required reductions in new automobile emissions were also specified in the act. the act authorized the epa to require states to formulate implementation plans describing how they would achieve and maintain the ambient air quality standards. in 1971 the epa promulgated national ambient air quality standards and protection agency (epa) and empowered it to set ambient air quality proposed regulations on state implementation 85 table 3 nationwide personal transportation study household and travel indicators 1969-90 percent summary statistic 1969 1990 change total population 197.2 million 239.4 million 21 total households 62.5 million 93.3 million 49 total workers 75.8 million 118.3 million 56 total vehicles 72.5 million 165.2 million 128 total annual vmt 775.9 million 1,409.6 million 82 indicator persons per household 3.2 2.6 vehicles per household 1.2 1.8 percent of households: 0 vehicles 20.6 9.2 1 vehicle 48.4 32.8 2 vehicles 26.4 38.4 3+ vehicles 4.6 19.6 vmt per household 12,423 15,100 % work vehicle trips 31.9 26.3 % nonwork vehicle trips 68.1 73.9 % transit trips 3.4 2.2 automobile occupancy 1.9 1.6 86 plans (sips) to meet these standards (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975b). outside the traditional urban transportation planning process and, in many instances, did not involve the planning agencies developing transportation plans. this problem became particularly difficult for urban areas that could not meet the air quality standards even the preparation, submission, and review of the sips occurred with new automobiles that met the air pollution emission standards. required that contained changes in urban transportation systems and their operation to effect the reduction in emissions. rarely were these tcps developed jointly with those agencies developing urban transportation plans. it took several years of dialogue between these air pollution and transportation planning agencies to mediate in these instances, transportation control plans (tcps) were joint plans and policies for urban transportation and air quality. another impact of the environmental legislation, particularly the transportation systems. in that the deadline for meeting the ambient air quality standards was fairly short, epa was primarily concerned with actions that could affect air quality in that time frame. the actions precluded major construction and generally focused on low capital and traffic management measures. up to that clean air act, was the increased emphasis on short-term changes in time, urban transportation planning had been focused on long-range (20 years or more) planning (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975b). boston transportation planning review for major expansions of the area's freeway system along with other highway improvements. public transportation was often projected to the results of many urban transportation planning studies called have a minimal role in the areas future. in these urban 87 transportation plans, many of the highway improvements were to be located in built up areas where they would cause major disruptions and dislocations. as public awareness to social and environmental concerns grew in many urban areas, so too did the opposition to transportation plans that contained recommendations for major expansions of the highway system. when faced with these circumstances, urban areas were forced to reevaluate their plans. the prototype for these reevaluations was the boston transportation planning review (btpr). contained recommendations for a comprehensive network of radial and circumferential highways and substantial improvements to the existing mass transportation system. much of the freeway portion the long-range plan for the boston region published in 1969 of the plan was included as part of the interstate highway system. plan, which was typical of urban transportation plans of this period. opposition to the 1969 plan developed even before it was many of the recommended highways were contained in the earlier 1948 published, especially from the affected communities (humphrey, 1974). construction in february 1970 shortly after the boston city council had already done so. he announced a major reevaluation of transportation policy for the boston area and created the btpr as an independent entity reporting directly to the governor to address governor francis sargent ordered a moratorium on major highway the areas transportation issues. transportation alternatives were identified and evaluated by an interdisciplinary team of professionals. the work was accomplished in an atmosphere of open and participatory interaction among planners, citizens, and elected officials. the btpr led to the decision made by the governor not to build additional freeways the btpr lasted about 18 months, during which time numerous within the boston core. instead, the major 88 emphasis was on a mix of arterials, special purpose highways, and major improvements in the mass transportation system (humphrey, 1974). transportation planning process, termed by alan altshuler, who chaired the btpr, the "open study." first and foremost was the extensive involvement of professionals, citizens, interest groups and decisionmakers in all aspects of the restudy. second, transit there were several hallmarks of this new form of the urban options were evaluated on an equal footing with highway options. the finer community level scale. fourth, there was less reliance on computer models for analysis and a more open attitude toward explaining the analytical methodology to the nontechnical participants. fifth, the study used a wider range of evaluation third, the restudy focused on both the broader regionwide scale and criteria that accounted for more social and environmental factors. points where the process had reached a stalemate (gakenheimer, 1976 sixth, decisionmakers were willing to step in and make decisions at and allen 1985). movement in a highly charged atmosphere outside the mainstream of decisionmaking in boston. although it is unlikely that such a study will be repeated elsewhere in the same manner, the btpr has the btpr occurred at the height of the citizen participation left a permanent impact on urban transportation. the legacy of the decisionmaking that has greater concern for social and environmental impacts and the opinions of those affected by btpr has been to demonstrate a more open form of planning and transportation improvements. urban corridor demonstration program in january 1970, the dot initiated the urban corridor demonstration program to test and demonstrate the concerted use of available highway traffic engineering and transit operations 89 techniques for relieving traffic congestion in radial corridors serving major urban corridors. the program emphasized low-capital intensive improvements rather than new major construction to demonstrate whether relatively inexpensive projects which could be implemented rapidly could play an effective role in relieving urban traffic congestion (alan m. voorhees and assoc., 1974). population. it utilized existing federal programs for transit facilities and equipment, demonstrations, research and technical the program was focused on urbanized areas over 200,000 in studies, and for highway construction, topics, and fringe parking. were funded under these programs in a coordinated fashion to reduce the demonstration projects use various improvement techniques that peak-hour congestion. demonstration projects. an evaluation manual was developed to assist the participating urban areas in developing the experimental in july 1970 eleven areas were selected to conduct planning for design, hypotheses to be tested, and overall evaluation strategy (texas transportation institute, 1972). based on the evaluation plans from these areas, eight were selected to carry out demonstrations, and seven actually conducted them. the projects tested line-haul improvements such as transit priority schemes, traffic engineering techniques and bus service improvements; low- density collection-distribution improvements such as park and ride facilities, demand responsive buses, and shelters; and cbd collection-distribution system improvements such as bus shuttle service and improved transportation terminals. highway improvement techniques in a concerted manner to improve urban transportation pointed the way to the extensive use of this early attempt to integrate low-capital intensive transit and transportation system management approaches in later years. further experimentation on low-capital techniques continued with the establishment of the service and methods demonstration program 90 in 1974. census journey-to-work surveys longest time series of u.s. demographic data. the census was first the decennial census, which is required by the constitution, is the taken in 1790 and broadened in 1810 to include other subjects. interest in the census by transportation planners began in the late 1950's with the advent of comprehensive urban transportation studies and the need for data on sociodemographic characteristics. at that time, the hrb launched the committee on transportation the census to include questions on place of work and automobile ownership in the 1960 census. in 1960, the format of the census was changed so that the majority of the population had to only answer a limited set of questions ("short form"), and a sample of the population had to answer a more detailed set of questions (long form). journey-to-work and other transportation-related questions information systems and data requirements to persuade the bureau of were included on the long form. in the 1960's, the bureau of the census established a small area data advisory committee, which included a number of transportation planners, to assist them in the planning for the 1970 census. census could be used more broadly for transportation studies because it included most of the traditional variables used in the studies and the journey-to-work question was similar to traditional transportation planners recognized that the data from the decennial origin-destination questions. in late 1966, the bureau of the purpose of the study was to examine the methods and procedures they has developed to facilitate the use of census data by local agencies. fhwa became involved because of their interest in an efficient method of maintaining current urban transportation planning data. a critical problem of the incompatibility of census census conducted a census use study in new haven, connecticut. the tracts and traffic analysis zones was 91 solved with the development of geographic coding systems. this permitted residence and work place addresses to be geographically coded to individual city blocks which allowed the census data to be summarized by traffic analysis zone (sword and fleet, 1973). as a result of the pretest, the fhwa funded the bureau of the census to develop the capability to provide special summary tabulations, as the proposed 1970 tabulations would not have satisfied urban transportation study needs. the result was the urban work place data along with socio-demographic data into an urban areas specific data base that could be used by local planning transportation planning package which integrated journey-towork and agencies (sword and fleet, 1973). during the 1970's, the use of the urban transportation planning package in transportation planning was evaluated in preparation for the 1980 census (highway research board, 1971c; transportation incorporated by the census bureau. these included finer levels of stratification for vehicle ownership, modes and geographic detail, research board, 1974c). many of the recommendations were and the addition of travel times to work. by the 1980's, the census journey-to-work survey had become a significant source of data for urban transportation planning. resources forced most urban transportation agencies to forgo large- scale data collection. second, planning agencies were being faced with pressures from decision makers for up-to-date information on which to base their analyses and recommendations. third, improvements in data-based modeling reduced the need for locally conducted surveys, such as home-interview origin-destination studies. fourth, improvements in both the transportation-related questions, and detail and accuracy of geographic coding of data from the 1980 census afforded planners a data base that at least first, since the 1960's rising costs and diminished financial partially filled the void left by the lack 92 of locally-collected data (transportation research board, 1985b). the dot provided technical assistance and training in the use of the 1980 census as they had with the 1970 census (sosslau, 1983). by the early-1980's over 200 mpos had purchased urban transportation planning package tabulations. evaluation of the experience with the package continued (transportation research board, 1984c). a conference on december 9-12, 1984 in orlando, florida, was organized by the trb and sponsored by the dot to review the progress to date and make recommendations for the 1990 census (transportation research board, 1985b). the conference demonstrated the central role that census data has achieved in urban transportation planning. patterns, mode of travel to work and vehicle availability occurring fhwa analyzed the nationwide changes in population, journey-to-work between the 1960, 1970 and 1980 censuses (briggs, et. al., 1986). further analyses were conducted under the national commuting study which was sponsored by ten organizations including aashto, the highway users federation for safety and mobility, institute of transportation engineers, and the urban land institute (pisarski, 1987a). period from analyses of the data. first was "the worker boom," which was a dramatic increase in the number of workers, and therefore in the number of work-trips commuters, in excess of the study distilled three primary trends over this twenty-year population growth. the increase in workers was due to entrance of "baby boomers" into the work force and the huge increase in the number of women entering the work force. second was "the suburban commuting boom," which was due to the large number of jobs that located in the suburbs. this resulted in suburb-to-suburb commuting becoming the dominant commuting pattern. third was "the private vehicle boom," in which private vehicles per capita almost 93 doubled during this period. work travel by private vehicles increased from 70 to 85 percent of all work travel (pisarski, 1987a). these trends clearly indicated that major changes had occurred in work travel and that these changes would continue for the foreseeable future. the census journey-to-work became a significant source of travel data both at the national level, and for state and local planning. addition to the series. at the local level, census data became more important as changes were made to improve its usefulness for urban transportation planning, and as cost constraints precluded at the national level, this data set increased in value with each collection of new data. 94 chapter 7 beginnings of multimodal urban transportation planning continuing urban transportation planning. (figure 10) by then, however, the urban transportation planning process was receiving criticism on a number of issues. it was criticized for inadequate treatment of the social and environmental impacts of transportation facilities and services. the planning process had still not become multimodal and was not adequately evaluating a wide range of alternatives. planning was focused almost exclusively on long- range time horizons, ignoring more immediate problems. and, the technical procedures to carry out planning were criticized for being too cumbersome, time-consuming, and rigid to adapt to new issues quickly. there was also concern expressed about their by 1970, there were 273 urbanized areas actively engaged in theoretical validity. criticisms. legislation was passed that increased the capital funds available for mass transportation and provided federal assistance for operating costs. greater flexibility was permitted in the use of some highway funds including their use on transit projects. these provisions placed transit on a more equal footing with highways and considerably strengthened multimodal planning and during the early 1970's actions were taken to address these implementation. urban transportation planning at the local level, and to require shorter-range capital improvement programs along with long-range plans. emphasis was placed on non-capital intensive measures to reduce traffic congestion as alternatives to major construction projects. and, state highway agencies were required to develop procedures for addressing social, economic, and environmental in addition, the federal government took steps to better integrate impacts of highways. 95 click here for graphic. 96 urban mass transportation assistance act of 1970 landmark in federal financing for mass transportation. it provided the first long-term commitment of federal funds. until the passage of this act, federal funds for mass transportation had been limited. it was difficult to plan and implement a program of mass transportation projects over several years because of the the urban mass transportation assistance act of 1970 was another uncertainty of future funding. least $10 billion over a 12-year period to permit confident and continuing local planning and greater flexibility in program administration. the act authorized $3.1 billion to finance urban mass transportation beginning in fiscal year 1971. it permitted the 1970 act implied a federal commitment for the expenditure of at the use of "contract authority" whereby the secretary of transportation was authorized to incur obligations on behalf of the required to liquidate the obligations. this provision allowed united states with congress pledged to appropriate the funds long-term commitments of funds to be made. this act also established a strong federal policy on transportation for elderly and handicapped persons: "... elderly and handicapped persons have the same right as other persons to utilize mass transportation facilities and services; that special efforts shall be made in the planning and design of mass transportation facilities and services so that the availability to elderly and handicapped persons to mass transportation which they can effectively utilize will be assured.... " (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979b) percent of the research funds might be set aside and used to the act authorized that 2 percent of the capital grant and 1.5 finance programs to aid elderly and handicapped persons. 97 economic, social, and environmental impacts of a proposed project the act also added requirements for public hearings on the and on its consistency with the comprehensive plan for the area. proposed project and for the secretary of transportation to determine that there was no feasible or prudent alternative to any it also required an analysis of the environmental impacts of the adverse impact that might result. federal-aid highway act of 1970 the federal-aid highway act of 1970 established the federal-aid designed to serve major centers of activity and to serve local goals and objectives. routes on the system were to be selected by local officials and state departments cooperatively. this provision significantly increased the influence of local jurisdictions in urban highway decisions. the influence of local officials in urban areas was further strengthened by an amendment urban highway system. the system in each urban area was to be to section 134 on urban transportation planning: "no highway project may be constructed in any urban area of 50,000 population or more unless the responsible local officials of such urban area ... have been consulted and their views considered with respect to the corridor, the location and the design of the project" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1980a). funds for the federal-aid urban system were to be allocated to the states on the basis of total urban population within the state. exclusive or preferential bus lanes and related facilities. this could only be done if the bus project reduced the need for additional highway construction or if no other highway project the act also authorized the expenditure of highway funds on could provide the person-carrying capacity of the bus project. there had to be assurances, as well, that the transit operator would utilize the facility. an additional provision of the act 98 authorized expenditures of highway funds on fringe and corridor parking facilities adjacent to the federal-aid urban system that were designed in conjunction with public transportation services. environment. one required the issuance of guidelines for full consideration of economic, social, and environmental impacts of highway projects. a second related to the promulgation of this act also incorporated a number of requirements related to the guidelines for assuring that highway projects were consistent with sips developed under the clean air act. modes would have to meet similar criteria related to impact assessment and public hearings. the highway act also increased the federal matching share to 70 percent for all non-interstate highways, making it comparable to the 66-2/3 percent federal share for mass transportation capital projects. in addition, the highway act legally required consistency between sips and urban highway as a result of the 1970 highway and transit acts, projects for both plans. conference on urban commodity flow had been developed through the decade of the 1960's emphasized passenger movement. little attention was given to the problems of commodity movements in urban areas. the majority of studies of the urban transportation planning processes and methodologies that urban goods movement had been limited to those related to trucks. difficulty in tracking the movements and the lack of available data on commodity movements was seldom collected because of the methods (chappell and smith, 1971). in recognition of the need for more information and better planning concerning the movement of goods in urban areas, a conference on urban commodity flow was convened at airlie house in warrentown, virginia on december 6-9, 1970. initially, the 99 conference was to focus on information and techniques to forecast urban commodity movement. but, as planning for the conference progressed, there emerged a need for a more fundamental understanding of commodity movements and the economic, social, political and technological forces that affected them (highway research board, 1971a). movement and the need for such information to make informed policy decisions on investment and regulation. the various viewpoints on the problems of urban commodity flow were explored. planners, shippers, government agencies, freight carrier, and citizens saw the problems and consequences differently. with so many actors, the institutional issues were considered to be too complex to mount the conference revealed the lack of information on urban goods effective strategies to address the problems (highway research board, 1971a). the urban transportation planning process and that techniques for forecasting goods movement needed to be developed. the regulations and programs of federal, state and local agencies needed to be coordinated to avoid conflicting effects on the goods movement industry that were not in the best interest of the public. greater efforts were called for to explore means of reducing the economic, the conferees concluded that goods movement needed more emphasis in social, and environmental costs of goods movement in urban areas (highway research board, 1971b). in the urban transportation planning process, and the complexity of the goods movement issue. it generated more interest and research in the subject and focused on the opportunity to develop strategies this conference directed attention to the neglect of goods movement to deal with urban goods movement problems. 100 mt. pocono conference on urban transportation planning transportation planning had not kept pace with changing conditions, in recognition of the widespread awareness that urban a conference on organization for continuing urban transportation of this conference was on multimodal transportation planning evolving from the earlier conferences that had focused on highway planning was held at mt. pocono, pennsylvania, in 1971. the focus planning and the separation between planning and implementation (highway research board, 1973a). as a means of achieving orderly development of urban areas and relating the planning process more closely to decisionmaking processes at all levels of government. it urged that urban planning be strengthened through state enabling legislation and bolstered by equitable local representation. further, citizen participation should occur continually throughout the planning process but should not be considered as a substitute for the conference recommended close coordination of planning efforts decisionmaking by elected officials (advisory commission, 1974). transportation planning, should be integrated, including the environmental impact assessment process. the planning process should continually refine the long-range regional transportation plan at the sub-area scale and focus on a 5- to 15-year time frame so that planning would be more relevant to programming and project implementation. transportation planning should consider service levels consistent with local goals, and a wide range of alternatives should be evaluated. the impact of changes in the transportation system should be monitored to improve future all comprehensive and functional planning, including multimodal decisionmaking and planning efforts (advisory commission, 1974). the conference report went on to urge that this more inclusive kind of planning be supported by flexible funding from the federal 101 government. this was to be done to avoid a preference for any mode so as not to unbalance specific urban transportation decisions contrary to local goals and priorities. the conference also supported additional resources for planning, research and training. dot initiatives toward planning unification the u.s. department of transportation had been working for several years on integrating the individual modal planning programs. in 1971, the dot established a trial program of intermodal planning in the field. the overall objective of the program was to integrate the modal planning programs at the urban-area level rather than at the federal level. with the successful completion of the trial program, the dot implemented the program on a permanent basis by establishing intermodal planning groups (ipgs) in each of the 10 obtaining and reviewing an annual unified work program for all transportation planning activities in an urban area; for obtaining agreement on a single recipient agency for areawide transportation dot regions. the ipgs were charged with responsibility for planning grants in each urban area; and, for obtaining a short-term (3- to 5-year) transportation capital improvement program, updated annually, from each recipient agency (u.s. dept. of transportation and u.s. dept. of housing and urban development, 1974). established to promote a coordinated department-wide process for urban area and statewide transportation planning and for unified funding of such planning. as a result of the efforts of the committee, a dot order was issued in 1973 that required that all urbanized areas submit annual unified work programs for all also in 1971 a dot transportation planning committee was transportation planning activities as a condition for receiving any dot planning funds. these work programs had to include all transportation-related planning activities, identification of the 102 agency responsible for each activity, and the proposed funding sources. the work programs were used to rationalize planning activities and joint funding under the dot planning assistance programs (u.s. dept. of transportation and u.s. dept. of housing and urban development, 1974). process guidelines for highway projects issued to assure that possible adverse economic, social, and environmental effects were considered in developing highway projects and that decisions on these projects were made in the best overall public interest. initially guidelines were developed specifying requirements and procedures for evaluating the effects in each of the impact areas. these guidelines were presented and the federal-aid highway act of 1970 required that guidelines be discussed at a highway research board workshop during july 1971 in full consideration of adverse impacts and of decisions in the best overall public interest could not be assured by extensive technical standards. it would depend upon the attitudes, capabilities, organization, and procedures of the highway agencies responsible washington, d.c. the primary conclusion of the workshop was that for developing the projects (u.s. congress, 1972a). emphasis of the guidelines was shifted to the process used in based on the workshop recommendations and other comments, the developing highway projects. in september 1972 fhwa issued ppm 90- 4, "process guidelines (economic, social, and environmental effects of highway projects)" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1972a). these guidelines required each state to prepare an action plan spelling out the organizational arrangement, the assignment of responsibilities, and the procedures to be followed in developing projects in conformance with the law. the action plan had to address the process for the identification of social, economic, and environmental impacts, considerations of alternative courses of action, use of a systematic interdisciplinary approach, 103 and the involvement of other agencies and the public. flexibility was provided to the states to develop procedures which were adjusted to their own needs and conditions. in which highway projects were developed. the staffs of highway agencies were exposed to the views of other agencies and the public. professionals with skills in the social and environmental areas were brought into the process. gradually, the project development process became more open and embraced a broader range the use of process guidelines was a further evolution of the manner of criteria in reaching decisions. umta's external operating manual with the passage of the urban mass transportation assistance act of 1970, the federal transit grant program substantially increased from less than $150 million annually before 1970 to over $500 million by 1972 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977b). it was anticipated that both the level of funding and number of projects to be administered would further increase. in august 1972 umta issued its first consolidated guidance for project management in its external- operating manual (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1972c). the external operating manual contained general information on with information on preparing an application for federal assistance, and the statutory criteria and program analysis guidelines umta would use in evaluating the applications. it also umta's organization and programs. it provided potential applicants contained policies and procedures for administering projects. achieve with the federal transit program were: increasing the the manual stated that the near-term objectives that umta sought to mobility of non-drivers, relief of traffic congestion, and 104 improving the quality of the urban environment. these objectives were related to urban areas of three size groups: small areas under 250,000 in population, medium areas between 250,000 and 1,000,000 in population, and large areas over 1 million in population. for small areas, the primary objective was for the mobility of the transit dependent. in addition, for medium areas the use of non- capital intensive (i.e. transportation system management) strategies to reduce traffic congestion was emphasized. transportation schemes including non-capital intensive strategies and new technologies was emphasized to support land development additionally, for large areas, analysis of alternative patterns (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1972c). included as appendix 2 of the manual was the urban mass areawide planning requirements for the transit program. these requirements were certified by hud designed to be consistent with the 3c planning requirements of the fhwa. an urban area needed to have: a legally established planning agency representing local units of government; a comprehensive, continuing areawide planning process; and a land use plan to serve as the basis for determining transportation planning requirements guide which set forth the travel demand. the transportation planning requirements, which were certified by umta, included: a long-range transportation planning process, a 5- 10 year transit development program, and a short-range program. wherever possible, the agency carrying out the comprehensive planning. an area could meet the planning requirements on an interim basis, until july 1, 1972, if it had a planning process underway, but received only a 50 percent federal share for its transit project instead of the two-thirds share if the requirement the agency conducting the transportation planning was to be, was fully met. the external operating manual was revised through 1974 but was 105 updated and supplemented in later years with umta circulars, notices, and regulations (kret and mundle, 1982). the planning requirements contained in the manual were superseded by the joint fhwa/umta urban transportation planning regulations (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975a). williamsburg conference on urban travel forecasting travel forecasting procedures pioneered in the late 1950's and by the latter part of the 1960's use of the conventional urban early 1960's was widespread but criticism of them was growing. expensive to operate and required too much data. the procedures had been designed for long-range planning of major facilities and were not suitable for evaluation of the wider range of options that were of interest, such as low-capital options, demand-responsive critics argued that conventional procedures were time-consuming and systems, pricing alternatives, and vehicle restraint schemes. policy issues and options had changed, but travel demand forecasting techniques had not. these issues were addressed at a conference on urban travel demand forecasting held at williamsburg, virginia, in december 1972, sponsored by the highway research board and the u.s. department of travel forecasting procedures that were sensitive to the wide range of policy issues and alternatives to be considered, quicker and less costly than conventional methods, more informative and useful to decisionmakers, and in a form that nontechnical people could understand. further, that improvements in methodology were urgently needed, and that significant improvements in capabilities could be achieved within three years based on the results of transportation. the conference concluded that there was a need for available research (brand and manheim, 1973). the conference recommended several simultaneous paths to improve travel forecasting capabilities. first was to upgrade existing 106 methodology with the results of recent research. second was to pilot test emerging procedures in several urban areas. third, was research to improve the understanding of travel behavior including before/after studies, consumer theory, psychological theory, and location behavior. fourth, research was needed to transform the results of travel behavior research into practical forecasting techniques. fifth, a two-way dissemination program was necessary to get new methods into the field and for the results of these applications to flow back to the researchers to improve the methods (brand and manheim, 1973). behavioral methods was soon to be at hand. they did recognize that a substantial amount of research was going to be necessary. and in fact the williamsburg conference did launch a decade of extensive research and activity in disaggregate urban travel demand the conferees were optimistic that the conversion to new, improved forecasting. federal-aid highway act of 1973 increased the flexibility in the use of highway funds for urban the federal-aid highway act of 1973 contained two provisions that mass transportation in the spirit of the mt. pocono conference. expenditures on urban mass transportation projects. this provision first, federal-aid urban system funds were to be used for capital took effect gradually, but was unrestricted starting in fiscal year 1976. second, funds for interstate highway projects could be relinquished and replaced by an equivalent amount from the general fund and spent on mass transportation projects in a particular state. the relinquished funds reverted back to the highway trust fund. transportation was a significant breakthrough sought for many years this opening up of the highway trust fund for urban mass by transit supporters. these changes provided completely 107 new avenues of federal assistance for funding urban mass transportation. transportation. first, it raised the federal matching share for the 1973 act had other provisions related to urban mass urban mass transportation capital projects from 66-2/3 percent to 80 percent, except for urban system substitutions, which remain at 70 percent. second, it raised the level of funds under the umta capital grant program by $3 billion, to $6.1 billion. third, it permitted expenditure of highway funds for bus-related public transportation facilities, including fringe parking on all federal- aid highway systems. functional usage. it authorized expenditures on the new federal-- the act called for realigning all federal-aid systems based on aid urban system and modified several provisions related to it. "urban" was defined as any area of 5,000 or more in population. apportioned funds for the system were earmarked for urban areas of 200,000 or more population. most important, it changed the relationship between the state and local officials in designating routes for the system. it authorized local officials in urbanized areas to choose routes with the concurrence of state highway departments (parker, 1977). first time urban transportation planning was funded separately: 1/2 of 1 percent of all federal-aid funds were designated for this purpose and apportioned to the states on the basis of urbanized area population. these funds were to be made available to the metropolitan planning organizations (mpos) responsible for two additional provisions related directly to planning. for the comprehensive transportation planning in urban areas. integrating and balancing the highway and mass transportation the 1973 federal-aid highway act took a significant step toward programs. it also increased the role of local officials in the 108 selection of urban highway projects and broadened the scope of transportation planning by mpos. endangered species act of 1973 animal or plant from becoming extinct in the united states. the act prevented the taking of endangered and threatened species of fish, wildlife, and plants, and the critical habitats where they live. the act applied to the loss of, or injury to, endangered species either directly or indirectly through activities that would the endangered species act of 1973 was enacted to prevent any interfere with their life support system (alan m. voorhees & assoc., 1979). were endangered by the secretary of interior with regard to wildlife and plants, and the secretary of commerce with regard to fish. section 7 of the act established a consultative process between any federal agency seeking to carry out a project or action and the appropriate department (either interior or commerce) to determine if there would be an adverse impact on any endangered species. the determination was to be made in the form of a biological opinion based on the best scientific and commercial data available. if the biological opinion found that an endangered species or its habitat was in jeopardy, the act required that reasonable and prudent alternatives be proposed by the department of commerce or interior respectively. where the federal agency could not comply with the proposed alternatives, the project or section 4 of the act required the determination of which species action could not proceed (ryan and emerson, 1986). the 1978 amendments to the act established the endangered species requirements of the act. this provision was a response to the decision by the u.s. supreme court to uphold blockage of the committee which was authorized to grant exemptions from completion of the tennessee valley authority's tellico dam because 109 it endangered a small fish called the snail darter (salvesen). of wildlife under certain conditions. for example, development could occur in the habitat of an endangered species if the development mitigated any adverse impacts of the species. this mitigation typically took the form of setting aside part of the site for a wildlife preserve, and by a finding that the development would not appreciably reduce the likelihood of the survival and in 1982, the act was again amended to allow for incidental takings recovery of the species in the wild (salvesen). use law in the nation. by 1990, there were about 500 plant and the endangered species act has been called the most powerful land animal species listed as endangered or threatened in the united states, and with more being added to the list each year. in the future, the act will affect many more development activities. aashto policy on geometric design of urban highways by 1966, the 1957 edition of a policy on arterial highways in urban areas had become partially obsolete as a result of the changing demands placed upon the urban transportation system (american association of state highway officials, 1957). the american association of state highway and transportation officials (aashto) (the name was changed in 1973) began a seven year effort to update and considerably expanded this policy. the new edition was reissued as a policy on design of urban highways and arterial streets-1973 (american association of state highway and transportation officials, 1973). contained two new sections on transportation planning and highway location not previously included in aashto policies. the material on transportation planning included a brief review of alternative in addition to updated material on highway design, the policy organizational approaches, elements of an planning process, and 110 steps in the process including data collection, forecasting, evaluation, surveillance and reappraisal. the information closely paralleled the guidance provided by fhwa in ppm 50-9 and im 50-468, and the technical guidance documented in their various manuals on the 3c planning process. effects of urban highway developments, community participation, and economic and environmental evaluation. the new material on highway design included design guidance for mass transit especially for the section on highway location covered social and environmental buses on arterial streets and freeways. the a policy on design of planning, location and design of a highway were not three distinct independent processes but rather a coordinated effort by planners, urban highways and arterial streets-1973 attempted to show that the locators, and designers. in 1984, aashto issued a policy on geometric design of highways and streets -1984 which combined updated, and replaced the 1973 urban policy and 1965 rural policy in addition to several others (american association of state highway and transportation from the 1973 urban policy on transportation planning and highway officials, 1984). this 1984 edition did not include the material location but instead referenced it. 1972 and 1974 national transportation studies required for over a decade, the results had not been used in the development of national transportation policy. beyond that, a composite national picture of these urban transportation plans did not exist even though they were the basis for capital expenditure although urban transportation planning had been legislatively decisions by the federal government. in the early 1970's, the studies to inventory and assess the current and planned department of transportation conducted two national transportation transportation system as viewed by the states and urban areas. 111 the two studies differed in their emphasis. the 1972 national transportation study obtained information on the existing transportation system as of 1970, the transportation needs for the 1970-1990 period, and short-range (1974-1978) and long-range (1979- 1990) capital improvement programs under three federal funding assumption (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1972b). the study showed that the total transportation needs of the states and urban areas exceeded the financial resources of the nation to implement them and discussed the use of low-capital alternatives to improve the productivity of the existing transportation system, particularly in urban areas. the 1974 national transportation study related more closely to the ongoing urban transportation planning processes (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975). it obtained information on the 1972 inventories, long-range plans (1972-1990), and short-range programs (1972-1980) for the transportation system in a more comprehensive manner than did the 1972 study. the transportation system for all three periods was described in terms of the supply of facilities, equipment, and services, travel demand, system performance, social and environmental impacts, and capital and operating costs. systems was also included. the 1972-1980 program was based on a forecast of federal funds that could reasonably be expected to be information on low-capital alternatives and new technological available and an estimate of state and local funds for the period (weiner, 1974). this study again demonstrated that the long-range plans were overly ambitious in terms of the financial resources that might be available for transportation. further, it showed that even after the expenditure of vast amounts of money for urban transportation, urban transportation systems would differ little in character in the foreseeable future (weiner, 1975b). the national transportation study process introduced the concept of tying state and urban transportation planning into national 112 transportation planning and policy formulation. it stressed multimodal analysis, assessment of a wide range of measures of the transportation system, realistic budget limitations on plans and programs, and increasing the productivity of the existing transportation system. although these concepts were not new, the national transportation studies marked the first time that they had been incorporated into such a vast national planning effort (weiner, 1976a). national mass transportation assistance act of 1974 for the first time the use of federal funds for transit operating assistance. it thereby continued the trend to broaden the use of federal urban transportation funds and provide state and local officials more flexibility. this act was the culmination of a major lobbying effort by the transit industry and urban interests the national mass transportation assistance act of 1974 authorized to secure federal operating assistance for transit. the act authorized $11.8 billion over a 6-year period. under the allocated to urban areas by a formula based on population and population density. the funds could be used for either capital projects or operating assistance. the funds for areas over 200,000 in population were attributable to those areas. the funds were to be distributed to "designated recipients" jointly agreed to by the governor, local elected officials and operators of publicly-owned mass transportation services. for areas under 200,000 in section 5 formula grant program, almost $4 billion was to be population, the governor was designated to allocate the funds. of the remaining $7.8 billion, $7.3 billion was made available for capital assistance at the discretion of the secretary of transportation, under the section 3 discretionary grant program, and the remainder was for rural mass transportation. funds used 113 for capital projects were to have an 80 percent federal matching share. operating assistance was to be matched 50 percent by the federal government (u.s. dept. of transportation 1976). to meet the same planning statute as section 134 of the highway act. finally, highway and transit projects were subject to the same long-range planning requirement. although many urbanized areas already had a joint highway/transit planning process, this section formalized the requirement for multimodal transportation section 105(g) of the act required applicants for transit projects planning. handicapped persons fares that were half regular fares when they traveled in off-peak hours. this was a further condition to the act also required transit systems to charge elderly and receiving federal funds. the act created a new section 15 that required the department of and operating information and a uniform system of accounts and records. after july 1978 no grant could be made to any applicant transportation to establish a data reporting system for financial unless they were reporting data under both systems. planpac and utps batteries of computer programs the computer programs developed and maintained by bpr during the 1960's were essential to most urban transportation planning studies which generally did not have the time and resources to develop their own programs. the battery had been written for most part by the u.s. bureau of standards and consisted of 60 single purpose computer programs. toward the end of the decade of the 1960's, new batteries of computer programs were being developed for transportation planning for the recently introduced third generation of computers, the ibm 360 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977a). 114 take advantage of the new capabilities of these computers. most highway agencies were acquiring ibm 360's for their own computer the highway planning package, known as planpac, was rewritten to installations and would soon be able to use the new computers. and apply trip generation relationships, calibrate and apply trip distribution models, perform traffic assignment, evaluate networks, planpac included computer programs to analyze survey data, develop and for plotting and utility programs to handle data sets (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977a). the fhwa completed a reorientation of the package. many of the programs in planpac that were not associated with the traditional new programs continued to be written and added to planpac. in 1974 four-step urban travel forecasting process were shifted to backpac. parking studies, highway capacity analysis, carpool matching, micro these included computer programs for traffic signal optimization, traffic analysis, land-use forecasting and freeway management. this resulted in 59 programs being retained in planpac and 244 programs being included in backpac. developed during the mid 1960's by the u.s. department of housing, and urban development which administered the federal transit a battery of computer programs for transit system planning was also program at that time. the battery was first written for the ibm 7090/94 computers and consisted of 11 multi-purpose programs. about 1973 umta assumed responsibility for the hud transit planning package and released an enhanced version for the ibm 360 as the designed for network analysis, travel demand estimation, sketch planning and data manipulation. the programs were compatible and umta transportation planning system (utps). the programs were communicated through a common data base. for planpac but instead join with umta to support the utps package in 1976 the fhwa decided not to perform any further developments whose name was changed to urban transportation planning system. 115 fhwa did make a commitment to maintain and support planpac as long as users needed it. the first release of the umta/fhwa multimodal utps was in 1976. a 1979/80 release provided additional capabilities and contained 20 programs. substantially assisted urban transportation planning studies in performing their various analytical and planning functions. these computer batteries facilitated the use of conventional planning techniques and furthered this style of urban transportation the development and support of computer programs by fhwa and umta planning. 116 chapter 8 transition to short-term planning attention turned to increasing the productivity and efficiency of existing facilities. in planning for major new regional transportation facilities, many urban areas had neglected maintaining and upgrading other facilities. however, environmental concerns, the difficulty of building inner city freeways, renewed interest in urban mass transit and the energy crisis gave added impetus to the focus on more immediate problems. signs were becoming evident of the changing emphasis to shorter term time as planning for the interstate highway system was being completed, horizons and the corridor level in transportation planning. existing system with a minimum of new construction. further, the connection was strengthened between long-term planning and the gradually, planning shifted towards maximizing the use of the programming of projects (weiner, 1982). emergency energy legislation in october 1973, the organization of petroleum exporting countries (opec) embargoed oil shipments to the united states and, in doing so, began a new era in transportation planning. the importance of oil was so paramount to the economy and, in particular, the transportation sector that oil shortages and price increases gradually became one of the major issues in transportation planning. the immediate reaction to the oil embargo was to address the specific emergency. president nixon signed the emergency petroleum an official government allocation plan for gasoline and home allocation act of 1973 in november of that year which established heating fuel. it regulated the distribution of refined 117 petroleum products by freezing the supplier-purchaser relationships and specifying a set of priority users. the act also established price controls on petroleum. it gave the president authority to set petroleum prices, not to exceed $7.66 a barrel. this authority was to terminate on september 30, 1981. the emergency highway energy conservation act, signed on january 2, 1974, established a national 55 miles per hour speed limit to reduce gasoline consumption. it was extended indefinitely on provided that federal-aid highway funds could be used for january 4, 1975 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979c). it also ridesharing demonstration programs. actions and policies to reduce the nation's dependence on oil, as the immediate crisis abated, the focus shifted to longer-term especially imported oil. the energy policy and conservation act of 1975 was passed by congress to ensure that automobile gasoline consumption would be reduced to the lowest level possible and to promote energy conservation plans. as directed, the u.s. department of transportation through the national highway traffic the corporate average fuel economy (cafe) be raised from 18.0 miles safety administration (nhtsa) promulgated regulations that required per gallon in 1978 to 27.5 in 1985 and beyond (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979c). reaction to the energy crisis of 1973/1974 evolved slowly at the local level as information and analysis tools gradually appeared. and conservation and needed to learn about this new issue that had been thrust upon them. it was not until the second crisis in 1979 with fuel shortages and sharply increasing prices that energy issues were thoroughly integrated into urban transportation most local planning agencies knew little about energy consumption planning. 118 service and methods demonstrations program the focus in transportation planning and development was shifting to shorter-term, low-capital improvements in the early 1970's. many of these improvements, which were grouped under the term "transportation system management" (tsm) techniques, were only in the conceptual stage or in limited applications in the united steps of evaluation and development, where necessary, to bring states and other countries. there was a need to perform the final these new improvement strategies into operational practice. established in 1974 to promote the development, demonstration, evaluation, and widespread adoption of innovative transit services the service and methods demonstrations (smd) program was and transportation management techniques throughout the united technology to create improvements that require relatively low levels of capital investment and that can be implemented within a short time frame. the concepts were demonstrated in real-world operational environments and evaluated to determine their costs, impacts, and implementation characteristics. evaluation, findings were widely disseminated to transportation planners, policy makers, states. the program focused on concepts that used existing and transit operators (spear, 1979). transportation for the elderly and handicapped, double-deck buses, and priority lanes for highway occupancy vehicles. by 1978 the program was sponsoring 59 ongoing demonstrations, evaluating 31 special case study projects, and had begun a cooperative program the smd program began with six demonstrations involving specialized with the fhwa to evaluate another 17 projects in the national ridesharing demonstration program. conventional service improvements, projects concentrated on projects were divided into four program areas. first, under improving productivity, reliability, and effectiveness with such 119 techniques as priority treatment for buses and other high occupancy vehicles, route restructuring, auto restricted zones, and articulated buses. in the second category of pricing and service innovation were projects on fare payment strategies, fare integration, fare change strategies, service changes, and parking pricing. the third category of paratransit services contained projects on ridesharing, brokerage, and taxicabs. fourth, transportation services for special user groups focused on accessible bus services, user-side subsidies, coordination of social service agency transportation, and rural public transportation (spear, 1981). contribution to the identification, evaluation, and dissemination of transportation system management techniques. this effort accelerated the introduction and adoption of innovative approaches to the provision of public transportation service. it also spurred experimentation with new public transportation service concepts by the service and methods demonstration program made a major other agencies at the state and local levels. ota's report on automated guideway transit the urban future (cole, 1968) was published in 1968, umta barely had a research program in the area of new urban transit by the time the report tomorrow's transportation: new systems for technologies. a small grant had been made for development of feasibility studies were begun in 1967. by 1970 decisions had been reached to proceed with funding of three major automated guideway transit (agt) demonstration projects - the transpo 72 exhibition westinghouse's transit expressway and several new system and two other demonstrations (u.s. congress, office of technology assessment, 1975). transpo 72 was held at the dulles international airport near washington, d.c. in the spring of 1972. four companies built and 120 operated prototype agt systems for public demonstration. in 1971, rapid transit (grt) system, airtrans, as the internal circulation umta awarded a grant to the vought corporation to build a group system for the dallas-ft. worth airport. service began in 1974. the third grt demonstration connected three separate campuses of became the manager of the project which was largely based on proposal by alden self-transit systems corporation. public service began in october 1975. the system was expanded with an umta grant west virginia university at morgantown. boeing aerospace company and operations began in july 1979 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1983b). construction. they were all simple shuttle loop transit (slt) systems at airports, amusement parks, and shopping centers. all by the end of 1975, another 18 systems were in operation or under were funded with private funds (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1983b). in september 1974, the u.s. senate transportation appropriations committee directed the congressional office of technology assessment (ota) to assess the potential for agt systems. the report, produced in june 1975, was a comprehensive assessment of agt systems and contained five reports from panels of specialists. research and development up to that time by umta had not produced the direct results expected in the form of fully developed systems in urban settings. the ota went further in concluding that insufficient funding was directed at new systems research and that overall the report concluded that the $95 million spent on agt the program needed restructuring with a clarification of objectives (u.s. congress, office of technology assessment, 1975). transportation problems. with regard to the more sophisticated grt systems, the ota found that a number of cities had shown interest the ota found that slt systems were promising for specialized urban but that there were serious technical problems. 121 preliminary studies were recommended a major conclusion was that the program emphasized hardware development, but further research as to the small vehicle personal rapid transit (prt) systems, only was needed on social, economic and environmental impacts. also umta had not developed a mechanism for qualifying new technological systems for capital grants (u.s. congress, office of technology assessment, 1975). in response to the study, umta launched the agt socio-economic research program in 1976. it consisted of assessments of existing market analyses, and an assessment of agt technology compared with agt installations, studies of capital and operating costs, travel other alternatives in urban area application (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1983b). found that more than 20 cities had considered agt systems. the conclusion reached was that there was considerable uncertainty with regard to costs, public acceptance, reliability, crime and land use impacts (lee et.al., 1978). planning procedures and data were not available to adequately assess new technological systems as an a review of local planning studies conducted under this program alternative to conventional urban technologies. program. it was designed to demonstrate the application of an slt type system in an urban environment. impact studies were to be conducted to assess the systems with regard to patronage, community also in 1976, umta initiated the downtown people mover (dpm) acceptance, reliability, maintainability, safety, and economics. four cities were selected for these demonstrations: cleveland, approved for participation using their existing commitments of houston, los angeles and st. paul. three other cities were federal funds: detroit, miami and baltimore (mabee and zumwalt, 1977). detroit and miami have constructed dpms. 122 model 13(c) labor protection agreement for operating assistance section 13(c) was included in the urban mass transportation act of 1964 to protect employees in the transit industry from potential adverse effects of federal transit assistance. at the time, federal assistance was in the form of capital grants and loans that could be used for public acquisition of private operations. a major concern was the loss of collective bargaining rights when employees entered the public sector. arrangements to protect the interests of employees. employee protection arrangements under section 13(c) included: (1) preservation of rights under existing contracts; (2) continuation of collective bargaining rights; (3) protection of employees against a worsening of their positions; (4) assurances of employment or reemployment for existing employees; and (5) paid section 13(c) required an applicant for federal assistance to make training or retraining programs. these arrangements were fair and equitable. there had been an evolution in the administration of section 13(c) since it was enacted. originally the department of labor (dol) only required a statement that the interests of employees would not be adversely affected by the federal grant. by 1966, however, there had evolved detailed 13(c) agreements that were the result of collective bargaining between grant applicants and the employee representatives. these 13(c) agreements were subject to the secretary of labor was responsible for determining whether renegotiation with each new grant. of 1974, federal funds became available for operating assistance under the section 5 formula grant program. grants for operating assistance were also required to comply with the section 13(c) with the passage of the national mass transportation assistance act provisions. to facilitate processing of these operating 123 assistance applications, organized labor, the american public transit association (apta), and the dol developed a national model 13(c) agreement pertaining to such agreements. the model agreement was signed in july 1975 by apta, the amalgamated transit union, and the transport workers union of america. apta established a procedure under which individual transit properties could affiliate themselves with the agreement and, thereby, become eligible for coverage by it for operating assistance applications (lieb, 1976). reduced the time and effort of individual transit properties and labor representatives to negotiate agreement and accelerated the the model section 13(c) agreement for transit operating assistance use of federal funds for operating assistance. joint highway/transit planning regulations to guide urban transportation planning. final regulations were the umta and fhwa had worked for several years on joint regulations issued to take effect in october 1975 (u.s. dept. of policies, and regulations issued on urban transportation planning transportation, 1975a). they superseded all previous guidelines, by the umta and fhwa. out planning and required agreements on the division of responsibility where the mpos and a-95 agencies were different. a multiyear prospectus and annual unified work program had to be submitted specifying all transportation-related planning activities for an urban area as a condition for receiving federal planning the regulations provided for the joint designation of mpos to carry funds. (figure 11) long-range transportation plan, which had to be reviewed annually the urban transportation planning process was required to produce a to confirm its validity. the transportation plan had to 124 click here for graphic. 125 contain a long-range element and a shorter-range "transportation systems management element" (tsme) for improving the operation of existing transportation systems without new facilities. an appendix to the regulations contained a list of major categories of actions to be considered for inclusion in the tsme. (table 4) the appendix stated that the feasibility and need for the individual actions differed with the size of the urbanized area, but that some actions in each of the categories would be appropriate in for any urbanized area. be developed consistent with the transportation plan. the tip had to include all highway and transit projects to be implemented within the coming five years. it thereby became the linkage between the planning and programming of urban transportation projects. it also brought together all highway and transit projects into a single document that could be reviewed and approved by decision makers. the tip had to contain an "annual element" that would be the basis for the federal funding decisions on a multiyear "transportation improvement program" (tip) also had to projects for the coming year. planning process. this certification was required as a condition for receiving federal funds for projects. the regulations incorporated previously legislated requirements related to social, economic, and environmental impact analysis, air quality planning, the regulations provided for a joint annual certification of the and the elderly and handicapped. programs including those for transit operating assistance. they represented the most important action up to that time to bring about multimodal urban transportation planning and programming of projects. they changed the emphasis from long-term planning to shorter range transportation system management, and provided a these joint regulations applied to all urban highway and transit stronger linkage between planning and programming. these 126 table 4 actions to be considered for inclusion in the transportation system management element actions to ensure the efficient use of existing road space - traffic operations improvements - preferential treatment of transit and high occupancy vehicles - provision for pedestrians and bicycles - management and control of parking - changes in work schedules, fare structures and automobile tolls actions to reduce vehicle use in congested areas - encouragement of carpooling and other forms of ridesharing - diversion, exclusion and metering of automobile access to specific areas - area licenses, parking surcharges and other forms of congestion pricing - establishment of car free zones and closure of selected streets - restrictions of downtown truck deliveries during peak hours actions to improve transit service - provision of better collection, distribution, and internal collection service within low density areas - greater responsiveness and flexibility in routing, scheduling and dispatching of transit vehicles - provision of express services - provision of extensive park and ride services from fringe parking areas - provision of shuttle transit services from cbd fringe parking areas - encouragement of jitneys and other flexible paratransit services and their integration in the transit system - simplified fare collection systems and policies - better passenger information systems and services actions to increase transit management efficiency - improve marketing - develop cost accounting and other management tools to improve decisionmaking - establish maintenance policies that ensure greater equipment reliability - using surveillance and communications technology to develop real time monitoring and control capability 127 regulations were another turning point in the evolution of urban transportation planning that set the tone for the next several years. policy on major urban mass transportation investments increased dramatically since 1970. however, the requests for federal funds from urban areas outpaced that increase. in particular, there was a resurgence of the conviction that rail transit systems could largely solve the problems of congestion and petroleum dependence while promoting efficient development patterns. consequently, the need to assure that these funds were the level of federal funds for urban mass transportation had used effectively and productively became apparent. the umta set forth its views on this issue in the document, preliminary guidelines and background analysis (transportation research board, 1975a). it was prepared for review at a conference on the evaluation of urban transportation alternatives held at attended by a broad spectrum of persons from all levels of government, the transit industry, consultants, universities, and private citizens. the conference report indicated a number of airlie house, virginia, in february 1975. the conference was concerns with the guidelines, which were transmitted to the umta (transportation research board, 1977). a draft policy statement to guide future decisions regarding federal assistance in the funding of major mass transportation with the assistance of the conference findings, the umta developed projects. this proposed policy on major urban mass transportation investments was published in august 1975 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975c). it embodied a number of principles. first, areawide transportation improvement plans should be multimodal and include regionwide and community-level transit 128 services. second, major mass transportation investment projects should be planned and implemented in stages to avoid premature investment in costly fixed facilities and to preserve maximum flexibility to respond to future unknowns. third, full consideration should be given to improving the management and operation of existing transportation systems. fourth, the analysis of alternatives should include a determination of which alternative meets the local areas social, environmental, and transportation goals in a cost effective manner. and fifth, full opportunity should be provided for involvement of the public and local officials in all phases of the planning and evaluation process (transportation research board, 1977). a cost-effective alternative that would meet urban area needs and goals in a 5- to 15-year time frame and that was consistent with the umta stated that the level of federal funding would be based on the long-range transportation plan. was held in march/april 1976 at hunt valley, maryland. this conference, too, was attended by a broad spectrum of the professional community. there was considerable discussion on several issues including the criteria to be used to measure cost- effectiveness, where the cost-effectiveness analysis fit in the overall planning process and the differences in the project a second conference on urban transportation alternative analysis development process between transit and highways (transportation research board, 1977). using the recommendations from the second conference, the umta prepared and published a final policy statement in september 1976 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1976b). although changes in the proposed policy were made, the principles remained basically unchanged. in february 1978, the umta provided further elaboration in its 129 policy toward rail transit (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1978a). in areas where population densities, travel volumes, and growth patterns indicated the need. preference would be given to corridors serving densely populated urban centers. it reaffirmed the principles of analysis of alternatives, including tsm measures, incremental implementation and cost-effectiveness. the policy added the requirement that the local area had to commit itself to a program of supportive actions designed to improve the cost- effectiveness, patronage, and prospect for economic viability of the investment. this included automobile management policies; feeder service; plans, policies and incentives to stimulate high density private development near stations; and other measures to revitalize nearby older neighborhoods and the central business district. with this policy supplement, rail transit was to become it stated that new rail transit lines or extensions would be funded a tool for urban redevelopment. characteristics of urban transportation systems and complex activity compared to the rather uniform process that existed during the mid 1960's. this change was caused by the need to address an expanded list of issues, and was fostered by the urban transportation planning in the mid 1970's was a more diverse issuance of the joint fhwa/umta planning regulations and umta's policy on major urban mass transportation investments (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975a and 1976b). the range of alternatives that had to be evaluated widened to include a fuller consideration of transit system options, transportation system management measures, and traffic engineering improvements. a more thorough assessment of social, economic, environmental, and energy impacts was required. consequently, urban areas were conducting transportation systems evaluations with increasing sophistication that consumed more time and resources. even though there were many sources of information on the 130 characteristics of urban transportation systems and their impacts to facilitate this evaluation process, they were difficult to locate, conflicting, often out of date, and generally local in nature. there was a need to synthesis and codify this data and information so that it would be more accessible. an earlier effort in the 1960's by the institute of traffic engineers, capacities and limitations of urban transportation modes, was more narrowly focused and reflected the range of issues at that time (institute of traffic engineers, 1965). to fill this gap, a handbook was prepared and published in early 1974 under the title, characteristics urban transportation systems (cuts) (sanders and reynen, 1974). cuts was designed as a single reference source containing information of the performance characteristics of urban transportation systems for use in the evaluation of transportation alternatives. the first edition contained data on: rail transit, bus transit, the automobile/ highway system, and pedestrian assistance systems. the seven supply parameters selected were: speed, capacity, operating cost, energy consumption, air pollution and noise, capital cost, and accident frequency. the cuts handbook was periodically updated and expanded. later editions included data on activity center systems as well as the original four modes. labor inputs were added in future editions to the supply parameters reported upon (reno and bixby, 1985). cuts was supplemented with two additional handbooks which provided data on the demand characteristics of urban transportation systems. the first, released in 1977, was traveler response to transportation system changes (pratt, pedersen and mather, 1977). literature, on the traveler behavior changes for a wide variety of changes in the transportation system. the initial edition distilled and interpreted data on seven types of transportation it summarized and synthesized information, primarily from existing changes including: high occupancy vehicle priority facilities, 131 variable working hours, van and buspools, transit scheduling frequency changes, routing changes, transit fare changes and transit marketing. parking and express transit were added in the second edition (pratt and copple, 1981). the second handbook was characteristics of urban transportation and 1979). the cutd handbook contained data on areawide travel characteristics and typical usage information for rail, bus and highways systems. the data was designed as inputs and cross checks for urban travel forecasting. the appendix contained more detailed demand (cutd) along with a later issued appendix (levinson, 1978 city specific and site specific data on travel. the revision to cutd reorganized, integrated and updated the information included in the earlier edition (charles river associates, 1988). experience on urban transportation systems that had been accumulated in the previous two decades and make it more available and accessible to the transportation planning community. it came at a time when the range of information needed for transportation system evaluation had greatly broadened but the resources for these efforts sought to capitalize on the large body of data and collecting new data were contracting. light rail transit in the late 1960's and early 1970's, many urban areas were seeking alternatives to the construction of freeways. san francisco and many areas did not have the density or potential travel demand to justify such systems. moreover, heavy rail systems had high construction costs and disrupted the areas through which they passed during construction. busways and preferential treatment for buses were being considered as alternatives to high cost fixed washington, d.c. had decided to construct heavy rail systems, but guideway systems, particularly in the united states. in europe, 132 especially west germany, light rail transit was the preferred alternative. this european experience renewed interest in light rail systems in the united states (diamant, 1976). on 78 new light rail vehicles to replace its deteriorating pcc car fleet. the two bids that were received were rejected as being too in 1971 the san francisco municipal railway (muni) requested bids costly. about this time, the massachusetts bay transportation authority (mbta) and the southeastern pennsylvania transportation systems. these events provided the opportunity to develop a authority (septa) decided to preserve and upgrade their light rail standard design for common use. the umta authorized a grant to the mbta to develop specifications for a new u.s. standard light rail tested in 1974 at the umta's test track in pueblo, colorado (silien vehicle (slrv). the first slrvs were built by boeing vertol and and mora, 1975). in december 1975 the umta expressed its concern that urban areas should give adequate consideration to light rail transit (lrt) in a it had no modal favorites, the increasing demand for transit capital assistance combined with escalating transit construction costs made it essential that cost effective approaches be fully explored. umta considered lrt as a potentially attractive option for many urban areas and would assist in its deployment in areas policy statement on light rail transit. the umta stated that while where proper conditions existed (transportation systems center, 1977). exchange information and explore the technical aspects and as interest in lrt grew, a series of conferences was organized to applications of lrt. the first conference, held in philadelphia in 1975, had as its objective the reintroduction of lrt to a wide spectrum of decision makers in government, industry and academia (transportation research board, 1975b). in 1977 a second conference in boston addressed the need for a more detailed focus 133 on the theme of planning and technology (transportation research occurred in san diego with the theme of planning, design, and board, 1978). several years later, in 1982, a third conference implementation of lrt in existing urban environments (transportation research board, 1982a). the fourth conference in deployment of lrt systems that capitalized on the flexibility of pittsburgh in 1985 focused on cost-effective approaches in the this mode of transit (transportation research board, 1985a). by 1990 lrv had achieved a substantial resurgence in the united states. boston, cleveland, newark, philadelphia, pittsburgh, and san francisco had renovated existing lines or replaced their existing vehicle fleets or both. (table 5) buffalo, los angeles, portland, sacramento, san diego and san jose, had opened new lrt lines. and new lrt lines were under construction in baltimore, dallas and st. louis. federal-aid highway act of 1976 trade-ins of nonessential interstate routes. the process of the federal-aid highway act of 1976 broadened the use of funds from increasing flexibility in the use of interstate funds began with the federal-aid highway act of 1968. it allowed withdrawal of a section 103(e)(2), referred to as the howard-cramer amendment, of nonessential interstate route and the use of the funds on another interstate route in the state. urbanized areas to withdraw a nonessential interstate segment within an area upon joint request of local elected officials and the governor. an equivalent amount of funds could then be spent from general revenues for mass transportation capital projects at an 80 percent federal matching share. the 1976 act allowed the funds from the interstate substitution to be used also for other in the federal-aid highway act of 1973, section 103(e)(4) allowed highways and busways serving those urbanized areas (bloch, et. 134 table 5 u.s. light rail systems year year line metropolitan-area built modernized kms boston 1897 1975-89 44.9 buffalo 1985 10.0 cleveland 1919 1980's 21.0 los angeles 1990 36.0 newark 1935 1980's 6.7 new orleans 1893 underway 13.1 philadelphia 1892 1981 118.7 pittsburgh 1891 1985 33.0 portland 1986 24.2 sacramento 1987 29.5 san diego 1980 53.4 san francisco 1897 1981 39.9 san jose 1988 32.0 under construction baltimore 36.2 dallas 32.0 st. louis 29.0 135 al. , 1982). federal funds to be expended on resurfacing, restoration, and rehabilitation (3r) of highways. this was done in recognition of the growing problem of highway deterioration. the completion date the 1976 act also changed the definition of construction to allow for the interstate system was extended to september 30, 1990. among different federal-aid systems, thereby increasing flexibility finally, the act expanded the transferability of federal funds in the use of these funds. ite trip generation report in 1972, the technical council of the institute of transportation report on trip generation rates. the purpose of the committee was to collect trip generation rate data already measured by others and engineers (ite) formed the trip generation committee do develop a to compile these data into on common source. the first edition of contained data collected between 1965 and 1973 from nearly 80 trip generation, an informational report was published in 1976 and different sources (institute of transportation engineers, 1976). revised and updated editions were published in 1979, 1983, 1987 and 1991 (institute of transportation engineers, 1979, 1982, 1987 and 1991). the fifth edition of trip generation represented the most comprehensive data base then available on trip generation rates. represent ite's recommendations on individual rates or preferred application of the data. the fifth edition contained trip generation rates for a 121 land uses categories from over 3,000 studies. many categories, however, contained a limited number of studies. rates were given for several different variables of a project including floor area, employment, and acreage, as well as these data were collected through volunteer efforts and did not for several time periods. in earlier editions of the report, trip 136 rates were given in the form of cells of a series of matrices. starting with the fourth edition, rates were calculated using regression equations. reference for trip generation data by traffic engineers and transportation planners for site level planning and analysis. at times the trip generation report was used as an expedient when a the ite trip generation reports became the most widely used site specific analysis would have been more appropriate. urban system study during their preparation and after their issuance. the states contended that the federal requirement to create metropolitan planning organizations (mpos) with the responsibility to program funds preempted the states' right of self-determination. in the joint highway/transit planning regulations were controversial essence they argued that mpos were another level of government. regulations, especially the greater authority to select projects and program funds. but, there was widespread concern that the planning and programming process had become too inflexible and those at the local level of government were more supportive of the cumbersome (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1976a). of the various factors involved in the planning, programming, and implementation of routes on the urban system. the study was consequently the federal-aid highway act of 1976 required a study conducted jointly by the fhwa and umta and submitted to congress in undertaking involving a liaison group of 12 organizations representing state and local interests, site visits to 30 urbanized january 1977 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1976a). it was a major area and field data on the remaining areas. the study concluded that the planning requirements were being carried out responsibly by all participants. this was true in 137 spite of the controversy over the responsibilities of the mpo. funds for transit was not widely used. only 6.4 percent of the funds were being used for transit projects. it was concluded that overall the complexity of federal requirements deterred many local they also found that the flexibility in the use of urban system governments from using their federal urban system funds (heanue, 1977). the study recommended that no changes should be made at that time, the process was new and participants had not had sufficient time to adjust, and that even though there was some confusion and controversy, the process was working properly (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1976a). road pricing demonstration program demand as was used in many other industries to manage demand for services. the basic approach was to increase prices for the use of facilities and service when demand was highest so that those users would either pay the higher cost to be served during the peak or road pricing had long been discussed as means to manage traffic divert to lower demand periods or alternative modes (vickrey, 1959). an extensive research program on the feasibility of road pricing was conducted by the urban institute (kulash, 1974). in an attempt to stimulate the use of road pricing, the u.s. department of transportation began a demonstration program in 1976. of eleven cities about the availability of a road pricing demonstration and offering federal funding for administration enforcement and evaluation of a vehicle licensing scheme inviting their participation (arrillaga, 1978). this approach to road pricing was based on the successful application in the city-state secretary of transportation william t. coleman wrote to the mayors of singapore (watson and holland, 1978). of the cities that responded, three were most promising: madison, 138 cities seemed most committed to reducing automobile use and to wisconsin, berkeley, california; and honolulu, hawaii. these using the resulting revenue to finance transit expansion (higgins, 1986). preliminary studies were conducted for each of the cities. pursue the demonstrations any further. a number of reasons were cited in opposition to the schemes including: harm to business, coercive interference with travel rights, regressive impacts on the based on these preliminary analyses, all three cities declined to poor, and inadequate information dissemination and promotion. trying road pricing schemes. this would come under the stimulus of the clean air act and the difficulty some urbanized areas had in more than a decade would pass before there was renewed interest in meeting national ambient air quality standards. national transportation trends and choices ten years after it was established, the u.s. department of its first multimodal national transportation planning study. the transportation, under secretary william t. coleman, jr., completed report, national transportation trends and choices - to the year 2000, described dot's views regarding the future evolution of transportation, set forth the decisions that needed to be made, and described the changes that would best serve national objectives (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977c). policy theme of secretary coleman's statement of national national transportation trends and choices elaborated upon a key transportation policy: "underlying comprehensive transportation policy is the recognition that diversity and intermodal competition are essential to an effective transportation system. government policy must move in the direction of increasing equal competitive opportunity among the transportation modes, 139 minimizing the inequitable distortions of government intervention and enabling each mode to realize its inherent advantages" (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977c). national transportation trends and choices was designed to show the and resource allocation decisions effectively and coherently in light of long-range consequences, intermodal tradeoffs, and broader national goals and objectives. in addition, the planning effort was designed to facilitate decisionmaking within the federal government, and to encourage consistency by state and local agencies and the private sector. this study was intended to initiate a continuing national planning process based on common congress and the public that the dot was making both substantive time horizons and planning assumptions. were developed for the 15-year period 1976-1990. for highways and public transportation, the estimates were based on updates of the the needs estimates in national transportation trends and choices data from the 1974 national transportation report (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1975d) which were submitted by only 15 states. the aviation needs estimate were developed by updating the 1976 and pipeline needs were estimated based on assumptions developed by national airport system plan plus additional analyses. railroad the study staff. national transportation trends and choices was received by the towards greater competition and reduced federal regulation was reflected in actions taken in later years. the study did not congress with little fanfare. however, the thrust of the report become the beginning of a longer term national planning effort. transit uniform system of accounts and records transit operating and financial data had been collected by the american public transit association (apta) and its predecessor, 140 the american transit association, since 1942 (american public of comparative transit information for operators, researchers, and governmental agencies. it had been recognized for some time, however, that this data had limitations in terms of uniformity of data definitions, consistency of reporting, and accuracy. as the involvement of federal, state and local governments increased in funding urban public transportation, particularly operating assistance, the need for a uniform system of accounts and records transit association, 1989). this data had been the primary source was recognized (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977d). in 1972, the american transit association (ata) and institute for rapid transit (irt), predecessors of apta, began project fare, uniform industry data reporting system. project fare developed and pilot tested a new system of accounts and records to meet the needs of the industry and government agencies to monitor operating uniform financial accounting and reporting elements, to develop a performance (arthur andersen & co., 1973). shortly thereafter, the urban mass transportation act of 1974 created a new section 15 that required the department of and operating information and a uniform system of accounts and records. umta continued to work with an industry control board to transportation to establish a data reporting system for financial modify and adapt the fare system to accommodate the requirements of section 15. the resulting system was required to be instituted by all recipients of umta section 5 formula grant funds (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1977e). fiscal year 1979 (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1981d). over 400 transit systems reported under the system. data items included those covering revenues, government subsidies, capital and operating costs, organizational structure, vehicles, employees, the section 15 transit data reporting system was first applied for service provided, ridership, safety, energy consumption, and 141 operating performance. over a period of years, the system underwent a number of modifications to its content, structure and procedures to adjust to changing data requirements. this included broadening the data base to include commuter rail, vanpools, and purchased (contracted) services. clean air act amendments of 1977 the clean air act amendments of 1977 increased the flexibility and local responsibility in the administration of the clean air act. revisions to state implementation plans (sips) for all areas where the amendments required state and local governments to develop the national ambient air quality standards had not been attained. the revised sips were to be submitted to the epa by january 1, 1979, and approved by may 1, 1979. air quality standards by 1982, or in the case of areas with severe the revised plans had to provide for attainment of national ambient photochemical oxidant or carbon monoxide problems, no later than 1987. in the latter case, a state must demonstrate that the standards cannot be met with all reasonable stationary and transportation control measures. the plans also had to provide for incremental reductions in emissions ("reasonable further progress") between the time the plans were submitted and the attainment deadline. if a state failed to submit a sip or if epa disapproved the sip and the state failed to revise it in a satisfactory manner, epa was required to promulgate regulations establishing a sip by was not fulfilling the requirements under the act, it was to impose july 1, 1979. if, after july 1, 1979, epa determined that a state sanctions. this would include stopping federal-aid for highways (cooper and hidinger, 1980). development of transportation control plans (tcps) that included in many major urbanized areas the revised sips required the strategies to reduce emissions from transportation-related sources 142 by means of structural or operational changes in the transportation system. since state and local governments implement changes in the transportation system, the act strongly encouraged the preparation of transportation elements of the sip by metropolitan planning organizations. these local planning organizations were responsible for developing the transportation control measure element of the sip (cooper and hidinger, 1980). from 1978 to 1980, the dot and epa, after long negotiations, jointly issued several policy documents to implement the clean air act's transportation requirements. one of these, signed in june 1978, was a "memorandum of understanding" that established the means by which the dot and the epa would assure the integration of transportation and air quality planning. a second one issued also in june 1978, "transportation air quality planning guidelines" described the acceptable planning process to satisfy the requirements. another, in march 1980, was a notice containing guidelines for receiving air quality planning grants under section 175 of the act (cooper and hidinger, 1980). and priority procedures for use in federal highway and transit programs. the regulations required that transportation plans, programs, and projects conform with the approved sips in areas that had not met ambient air quality standards, termed "nonattainment areas." in those areas, priority for transportation funds was to be given to "transportation control measures" (tcms) that contributed in january 1981 dot issued regulations on air quality conformance to reducing air pollution emissions from transportation sources. conformance with the sip, "sanctions" were to be applied that prohibited the use of federal funds on major transportation where an areas transportation plan or program was not in projects (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1981b). the 1977 clean air act amendments certainly gave impetus to short- 143 range planning and transportation system management strategies. they also added a new dimension to the institutional and analytical complexity of the planning process. 144 chapter 9 urban economic revitalization changes in the economy, high unemployment, inflation, and rising energy prices. many of the problems had been developing for a number of years. the economy was in a transition from a predominantly manufacturing base to one that had a larger share concentrated in service, communication, and high technology industries. jobs in the manufacturing sector were declining and new jobs were growing in the new sectors of the economy. people were moving to those areas of the country where the new jobs were being created, especially the south and the west. the older urban areas in the northeast and midwest were being affected most severely by these changes. but older central cities in all sections of the country were in decline as jobs and people migrated first to the suburbs and then to the newer urban areas where the economies were in the mid 1970's the country was feeling the effects of structural growing. economically and limited in their ability to address these problems themselves. it was recognized that the federal government had contributed to these problems with programs that had unintended consequences. however, many of the decisions that affected changes in urban areas were outside the control of even the federal government and often any level of government. the federal, state, and local levels of government would, therefore, have to cooperate among themselves and with the private sector in order to alleviate these older communities and central cities were severely distressed these problems. 1978 national urban policy report in title vii of the housing and urban development act of 1970 the congress required preparation of biennial reports on national 145 growth and development. congress recognized the need to analyze the many aspects of the nation's growth in a systematic manner with the objective of formulating a national urban growth policy. the first report, transmitted to congress in 1972, discussed the broad subject of national growth, including both rural and urban areas (domestic council, 1972). the 1974 report focused on the dominant role of the private sector in determining growth and the ways in which the public and private sector could influence development patterns. the 1976 report discussed the decline of older resources, and the need to conserve and rehabilitate existing northeastern cities, the constraints of energy, environmental housing and public facilities (domestic council, 1976). the national urban policy and new community development act of 1977 amended the 1970 act to designate the report the "national urban policy report" rather than the more general "report on urban growth" (domestic council, 1976). less than a year later, on march 27, 1978, president carter presented his message to congress on national urban policy. the policy was designed to build a new of government, the private sector, and neighborhood and voluntary organizations. it contained a number of proposals to improve existing programs and for new initiatives with the purpose of partnership to conserve americans communities involving all levels revitalizing distressed central cities and older suburbs (u.s. dept. of housing and urban development, 1978b). the president's message was followed in august by the president's 1978 national urban policy report (u.s. dept. of housing and urban the demographic, social and economic trends in the nation's urban areas. but, it was the first report to recommend a national urban development, 1978b). like its predecessors, the report discussed policy. the recommendations in the report and the president's the urban and regional policy group. the group worked for a year message were developed by an inter-departmental committee called with extensive public involvement to formulate its analysis of the 146 problems and recommendations (u.s. department of housing and urban development, 1978a). policy objective was, "encourage and support efforts to improve local planning and management capacity and the effectiveness of existing federal programs by coordinating these programs, simplifying planning requirements, reorienting resources, and reducing paperwork, other objectives called for greater state, the urban policy consisted of nine objectives. the first urban private sector and voluntary involvement to assist urban areas. communities and assistance to disadvantaged persons. the last objective was for an improved physical environment and reduced several objectives were for fiscal relief for distressed urban sprawl (u.s. dept. of housing and urban development, 1978b). a wide range of legislative and administrative actions were taken to implement the national urban policy (u.s. dept. of housing and and umta, issued guidance for evaluating the impact on urban centers of major transportation projects and investments. the guidance required an analysis of the impacts of improvements in highways and transit on central cities' development, tax base, employment, accessibility and environment. in addition, impacts on energy conservation, and on minorities and neighborhoods were to be analyzed. furthermore, the guidance required that improvements to existing facilities be considered first, including the repair and rehabilitation of transportation facilities and tsm measures to increase the effectiveness of those facilities. in this manner, the guidance sought to assure that the new investments in urban development, 1980). the department of transportation, fhwa transportation facilities would be cost-effective (u.s. dept. of transportation, 1979e). constructing new facilities to managing, maintaining and replacing the new national urban policy gave added impetus to the shift from existing facilities. it was rooted in the belief that mobility 147 could be assured despite energy, environmental, and financial constraints. the key was to manage the use of the automobile in the city better. the challenge was for the urban transportation planning process to maintain and enhance mobility while meeting these other objectives (heanue, 1980). surface transportation assistance act of 1978 that combined highway, public transportation and highway safety authorizations in one piece of legislation. it provided $51.4 billion for the fiscal years 1979 through 1982, with $30.6 billion for highways, $13.6 billion for public transportation, and $7.2 billion for highway safety. it was the first time that authorizations for the highway program were made for a four-year period. highway trust fund user charges were extended five years the surface transportation assistance act of 1978 was the first act to 1984 and the fund itself to 1985. title i, the federal-aid highway act of 1978, accelerated completion of the national system of interstate and defense constructed by changing the availability of a state's apportionment from four to two years. if the funds were not used, they could be reallocated to states with projects ready to go. the act withdrew authority to replace one interstate route with another. it placed a deadline of september 30, 1983, on substituting public transportation or other highway projects for withdrawn interstate routes. the federal share for both highway and transit substitute projects was increased to 85 percent. the act required that environmental impact statements for interstate projects be submitted by september 30, 1983, and that they be under contract or construction by september 30, 1986, if sufficient federal funds we re available. if the deadlines were not met, the interstate route highways. it concentrated funds on projects that were ready to be or subs ' '
    9237287d3282	b'     new page 3   
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    colorado state archives 1870 census index banner

     
    ramkes - rican

    name

    county

    dist/p.o.

    page

    line

    film

    ramkes, charles

    bent

    ft.lyon

    3

    38

    gr19

    ramon, anastacia

    huerfano

    cuchara river-butte va

    23

    26

    gr20

    ramon, ejcedro

    huerfano

    cuchara river-butte va

    23

    27

    gr20

    ramon, francisca

    huerfano

    cuchara river-butte va

    23

    28

    gr20

    ramon, lazaro

    huerfano

    cuchara river-butte va

    23

    29

    gr20

    ramon, lorenza

    huerfano

    cuchara river-butte va

    23

    25

    gr20

    ramon, padro

    huerfano

    cuchara river-butte va

    23

    24

    gr20

    ramos, bartoto

    huerfano

    cuchara river-trinidad

    25

    21

    gr20

    ramos, gibela

    huerfano

    cuchara river-trinidad

    25

    24

    gr20

    ramos, juan dela cruz

    huerfano

    cuchara river-trinidad

    25

    23

    gr20

    ramos, tomasa

    huerfano

    cuchara river-trinidad

    25

    22

    gr20

    ramsdell, joel

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    107

    24

    gr19

    ramsdell, lyman

    lake

    fairplay

    3

    16

    gr20

    ramsey, ann e

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    115

    21

    gr19

    ramsey, catherine

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    115

    18

    gr19

    ramsey, james

    arapahoe

    county

    34

    18

    gr19

    ramsey, james

    arapahoe

    denver

    3

    5

    gr21

    ramsey, john

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    115

    19

    gr19

    ramsey, joseph

    arapahoe

    county

    34

    17

    gr19

    ramsey, joseph

    arapahoe

    denver

    3

    4

    gr21

    ramsey, luella

    arapahoe

    county

    34

    21

    gr19

    ramsey, mary

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    115

    20

    gr19

    ramsey, michael

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    115

    17

    gr19

    ramsey, sarah

    arapahoe

    county

    34

    19

    gr19

    ramsey, william

    arapahoe

    county

    34

    20

    gr19

    rancheler, john

    pueblo

    st.charles

    19

    3

    gr20

    rand, amos

    jefferson

    golden city

    40

    1

    gr20

    rand, andrew

    lake

    granite

    1

    1

    gr21

    rand, archibald

    gilpin

    black hawk

    27

    13

    gr20

    rand, bessie l

    jefferson

    golden city

    34

    35

    gr20

    rand, charles

    jefferson

    golden city

    35

    6

    gr20

    rand, e t

    weld

    town of evans

    4

    7

    gr20

    rand, frank m

    jefferson

    golden city

    34

    34

    gr20

    rand, george

    jefferson

    golden city

    44

    29

    gr20

    rand, henry

    gilpin

    central city

    58

    36

    gr20

    rand, john

    gilpin

    central city

    30

    40

    gr20

    rand, joseph

    gilpin

    central city

    14

    21

    gr20

    rand, lois

    jefferson

    golden city

    35

    8

    gr20

    rand, lucinda

    jefferson

    golden city

    44

    30

    gr20

    rand, mary

    jefferson

    golden city

    35

    7

    gr20

    rand, otto p

    jefferson

    golden city

    44

    31

    gr20

    rand, rachel

    jefferson

    golden city

    34

    33

    gr20

    rand, robert j

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    108

    30

    gr19

    rand, sarah

    jefferson

    golden city

    40

    2

    gr20

    rand, thomas

    gilpin

    central city

    31

    1

    gr20

    rand, william

    jefferson

    golden city

    34

    32

    gr20

    randal, elijah

    weld

    district no. 3 - evans

    1

    26

    gr20

    randall, alex c

    pueblo

    st.charles

    14

    12

    gr20

    randall, augusta t

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    37

    22

    gr19

    randall, charles

    arapahoe

    county

    27

    17

    gr19

    randall, charles

    arapahoe

    county

    12

    40

    gr19

    randall, charles b

    pueblo

    st.charles

    14

    10

    gr20

    randall, charles b

    pueblo

    st.charles

    14

    13

    gr20

    randall, charles r

    pueblo

    pueblo

    1

    33

    gr21

    randall, eliza

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    10

    35

    gr19

    randall, elizabeth

    pueblo

    st.charles

    14

    14

    gr20

    randall, emma

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    37

    23

    gr19

    randall, george m

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    10

    34

    gr19

    randall, jane

    pueblo

    st.charles

    14

    11

    gr20

    randall, john

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    37

    24

    gr19

    randall, john t

    pueblo

    st.charles

    14

    16

    gr20

    randall, lanea

    pueblo

    st.charles

    14

    15

    gr20

    randell, alice

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    111

    12

    gr19

    randell, charles

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    111

    11

    gr19

    randell, lura

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    111

    10

    gr19

    randell, luther

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    111

    9

    gr19

    randle, norton

    greenwood

    town of kit carson

    5

    26

    gr20

    randol, o p

    bent

    ft.lyon

    7

    10

    gr19

    randolph, george e

    gilpin

    bald mountain

    16

    28

    gr20

    randolph, harriet

    gilpin

    bald mountain

    16

    29

    gr20

    randolph, mary

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    60

    15

    gr19

    randolph, mary

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    18

    20

    gr19

    randolph, mary

    gilpin

    bald mountain

    16

    30

    gr20

    rane, timothy

    fremont

    county - canon city

    11

    7

    gr20

    raney, david

    weld

    district no. 5 - evans

    4

    35

    gr20

    raney, david

    weld

    district no.5 - evans

    1

    16

    gr21

    raney, lucinda

    weld

    district no. 5 - evans

    4

    36

    gr20

    ranfer, charles

    las animas

    trinidad

    11

    14

    gr20

    rank, ida

    gilpin

    central city

    55

    26

    gr20

    rank, john

    gilpin

    central city

    55

    25

    gr20

    rank, john

    gilpin

    central city

    55

    23

    gr20

    rank, mary

    gilpin

    central city

    55

    24

    gr20

    rankin, clement

    summit

    breckenridge

    1

    6

    gr19

    rankin, david

    arapahoe

    county

    36

    25

    gr19

    rankin, james

    arapahoe

    county

    40

    25

    gr19

    rankin, james

    summit

    breckenridge

    1

    4

    gr19

    rankin, lenord

    douglas

    virginia

    14

    39

    gr19

    rankin, lucy

    summit

    breckenridge

    1

    5

    gr19

    rankin, william

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    84

    27

    gr19

    rann, josefa

    huerfano

    v of huerfano river-ba

    27

    30

    gr20

    rann, juan

    huerfano

    v of huerfano river-ba

    27

    29

    gr20

    ranney, david

    weld

    district no. 5 - evans

    4

    13

    gr20

    rannian, charles

    gilpin

    black hawk

    25

    20

    gr20

    ransohoff, leopold

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    56

    3

    gr19

    ranson, eric

    bent

    ft.lyon

    4

    7

    gr19

    ranson, william

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    84

    36

    gr19

    rapell, eugenia

    clear creek

    georgetown

    21

    2

    gr19

    raplojal, george

    fremont

    d.2/1870

    13

    3

    gr22

    rapp, anthony

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    73

    38

    gr19

    rapp, charles

    arapahoe

    county

    50

    32

    gr19

    rappey, wesley

    summit

    county - breckenridge

    3

    13

    gr20

    rasbach, benjamin

    clear creek

    county - idaho

    12

    1

    gr19

    rasch, henry

    gilpin

    black hawk

    15

    28

    gr20

    rascon, felipe

    las animas

    v of purgatory river w

    5

    13

    gr20

    rascon, felipe

    las animas

    v of purgatory river w

    6

    32

    gr20

    rascon, jesus ma

    las animas

    v of purgatory river w

    5

    15

    gr20

    rascon, margurita

    las animas

    v of purgatory river w

    5

    14

    gr20

    rash, john

    arapahoe

    county

    32

    39

    gr19

    raskey, frederick

    douglas

    huntsville

    5

    16

    gr21

    rason,margarita

    las animas

    v of purgatory river w

    6

    33

    gr20

    ratcliff, elizabeth

    douglas

    glen grove

    2

    14

    gr19

    ratcliff, george

    douglas

    glen grove

    2

    12

    gr19

    ratcliff, george

    douglas

    huntsville

    3

    6

    gr21

    ratcliff, mary

    douglas

    glen grove

    2

    13

    gr19

    ratcliff, perly

    douglas

    glen grove

    2

    15

    gr19

    ratcliff, richard

    douglas

    glen grove

    2

    16

    gr19

    ratcliffe, james

    jefferson

    golden city

    10

    19

    gr20

    rath, charles

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    57

    3

    gr19

    rath, john

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    57

    4

    gr19

    ratliff, amanda

    gilpin

    bald mo'tain-nevada ci

    6

    5

    gr20

    ratliff, david

    gilpin

    bald mo'tain-nevada ci

    6

    6

    gr20

    ratliff, john

    gilpin

    bald mo'tain-nevada ci

    6

    4

    gr20

    ratliff, lucy

    gilpin

    bald mo'tain-nevada ci

    6

    8

    gr20

    ratliff, nellie

    gilpin

    bald mo'tain-nevada ci

    6

    7

    gr20

    ravelle, juan

    arapahoe

    county

    17

    40

    gr19

    raverdy, john

    gilpin

    central city

    18

    23

    gr20

    ravil, charles

    saquache

    saquache

    2

    15

    gr20

    ray, charles

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    30

    37

    gr19

    ray, john

    clear creek

    county - georgetown

    2

    34

    gr19

    ray, john

    gilpin

    central city

    58

    1

    gr20

    rayan, thomas

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    87

    29

    gr19

    raybol, telesforo

    las animas

    v of purgatory river w

    2

    21

    gr20

    rayer, cavon

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    107

    22

    gr19

    raymnd, jose albino

    las animas

    trinidad

    3

    33

    gr20

    raymond, charles

    las animas

    trinidad

    3

    31

    gr20

    raymond, eli

    arapahoe

    county

    30

    12

    gr19

    raymond, george

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    120

    18

    gr19

    raymond, harriet

    jefferson

    mount vernon

    1

    7

    gr20

    raymond, jose s

    las animas

    trinidad

    4

    6

    gr20

    raymond, lewis

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    48

    7

    gr19

    raymond, maria m

    las animas

    trinidad

    4

    7

    gr20

    raymond, siseria

    las animas

    trinidad

    3

    32

    gr20

    raynolds, benjamin

    boulder

    st.vrain-burlington

    17

    5

    gr19

    raynolds, john

    boulder

    st.vrain-burlington

    17

    6

    gr19

    raynolds, sam

    boulder

    st.vrain-burlington

    17

    3

    gr19

    raynolds, sarah

    boulder

    st.vrain-burlington

    17

    4

    gr19

    raynolds, sarah e

    boulder

    st.vrain-burlington

    17

    7

    gr19

    rea, austin

    clear creek

    georgetown

    18

    10

    gr19

    rea, charles

    clear creek

    georgetown

    18

    12

    gr19

    rea, ella

    clear creek

    georgetown

    18

    13

    gr19

    rea, joseph

    el paso

    bissetts mill

    12

    19

    gr19

    rea, sarah

    clear creek

    georgetown

    18

    11

    gr19

    read, agnes

    weld

    town of evans

    1

    36

    gr20

    read, john s

    weld

    town of evans

    1

    34

    gr20

    read, robert

    las animas

    v of purgatory river e

    27

    20

    gr20

    read, sarah c

    weld

    town of evans

    1

    35

    gr20

    read, thomas

    las animas

    v of purgatory river e

    27

    19

    gr20

    ready, andrew

    arapahoe

    county

    15

    40

    gr19

    ready, charles

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    114

    8

    gr19

    ready, emma c

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    114

    6

    gr19

    ready, franklin

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    114

    7

    gr19

    ready, mary

    pueblo

    town of pueblo

    17

    14

    gr20

    ready, mary e

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    114

    10

    gr19

    ready, samuel

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    114

    5

    gr19

    ready, sopikis

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    114

    9

    gr19

    ready, thomas

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    114

    11

    gr19

    ready, wash

    pueblo

    town of pueblo

    13

    39

    gr20

    reagan, david

    pueblo

    st.charles

    15

    38

    gr20

    reagan, thomas

    pueblo

    st.charles

    15

    39

    gr20

    reagle, mark

    el paso

    fountain

    20

    40

    gr19

    reak, benjamin f

    las animas

    trinidad

    13

    24

    gr20

    real, paula

    las animas

    v of purgatory river e

    36

    25

    gr20

    real, seledon

    saquache

    saquache

    3

    36

    gr20

    reana, antastico

    costilla

    san luis

    5

    2

    gr21

    reanso, frank

    gilpin

    central city

    20

    36

    gr20

    reardon, patrick

    gilpin

    central city

    30

    13

    gr20

    reason, eliza

    gilpin

    central city

    30

    12

    gr20

    reason, eliza

    gilpin

    central city

    30

    9

    gr20

    reason, joseph

    gilpin

    central city

    30

    8

    gr20

    reason, joseph

    gilpin

    central city

    30

    10

    gr20

    reason, william

    gilpin

    central city

    30

    11

    gr20

    rebery, andrew

    saguache

    saguache

    1

    37

    gr21

    rebeso, sallie

    saquache

    saquache

    7

    3

    gr20

    recho, anna

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    112

    33

    gr19

    recho, anna

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    112

    31

    gr19

    recho, emma

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    112

    32

    gr19

    recho, john

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    112

    30

    gr19

    recken, james

    el paso

    el paso

    22

    2

    gr19

    recken, sarah

    el paso

    el paso

    22

    3

    gr19

    red, dolores

    conejos

    los conejos

    27

    17

    gr19

    red, jose

    conejos

    los conejos

    27

    18

    gr19

    red, jose m

    conejos

    los conejos

    27

    15

    gr19

    red, justa

    conejos

    los conejos

    27

    16

    gr19

    redd, alexander

    greenwood

    town of kit carson

    2

    24

    gr20

    reddan, bridget

    gilpin

    central city

    56

    20

    gr20

    reddan, bridget

    gilpin

    central city

    56

    21

    gr20

    reddan, helen

    gilpin

    central city

    8

    27

    gr20

    reddan, hellen

    gilpin

    central city

    8

    23

    gr20

    reddan, james

    gilpin

    central city

    56

    23

    gr20

    reddan, john

    gilpin

    central city

    56

    25

    gr20

    reddan, john

    gilpin

    central city

    8

    25

    gr20

    reddan, margaret

    gilpin

    central city

    8

    28

    gr20

    reddan, marry

    gilpin

    central city

    8

    26

    gr20

    reddan, mary

    gilpin

    central city

    56

    22

    gr20

    reddan, patrick

    gilpin

    central city

    56

    24

    gr20

    reddan, patrick

    gilpin

    central city

    8

    22

    gr20

    reddan, patrick

    gilpin

    central city

    8

    24

    gr20

    reddan, patrick

    gilpin

    central city

    56

    19

    gr20

    redden, michael

    jefferson

    golden city

    20

    40

    gr20

    redding, john

    arapahoe

    county

    18

    36

    gr19

    redding, john

    douglas

    bijou basin

    28

    12

    gr19

    reddleburger, utah

    pueblo

    greenhorn

    22

    36

    gr20

    reder, john

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    40

    24

    gr19

    redman, ed

    el paso

    fountain

    4

    22

    gr19

    redman, john

    douglas

    bijou basin

    29

    40

    gr19

    redman, john

    gilpin

    county - central city

    21

    2

    gr20

    redman, michael

    gilpin

    bald mountain

    18

    10

    gr20

    redmouir, george

    arapahoe

    county

    9

    16

    gr19

    redmund, kate

    bent

    ft.lyon

    7

    23

    gr19

    ree, carrie j

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    89

    30

    gr19

    ree, dolores

    las animas

    trinidad

    7

    18

    gr20

    ree, frances

    boulder

    st.vrain-burlington

    11

    30

    gr19

    ree, issac

    boulder

    st.vrain-burlington

    11

    33

    gr19

    ree, licole

    boulder

    st.vrain-burlington

    11

    32

    gr19

    ree, lillie

    boulder

    st.vrain-burlington

    11

    31

    gr19

    ree, samuel

    boulder

    st.vrain-burlington

    11

    29

    gr19

    reed, infant

    jefferson

    d.3/1870

    20

    2

    gr22

    reed, ada l

    jefferson

    golden city

    42

    19

    gr20

    reed, alexander

    pueblo

    hermosilla

    41

    39

    gr20

    reed, amanda

    arapahoe

    county

    23

    24

    gr19

    reed, ambeline

    huerfano

    v of huerfano river-ba

    19

    12

    gr20

    reed, andres

    saguache

    saguache

    3

    9

    gr21

    reed, andrew

    boulder

    s.boulder valley-b cit

    2

    10

    gr19

    reed, andrew

    boulder

    south boulder valley-b

    1

    9

    gr21

    reed, andrew

    saquache

    saquache

    8

    9

    gr20

    reed, angelina

    gilpin

    central city

    59

    16

    gr20

    reed, anginelle

    boulder

    s.boulder valley-b cit

    2

    13

    gr19

    reed, austin

    arapahoe

    county

    23

    27

    gr19

    reed, benjamin

    huerfano

    v of huerfano river-ba

    19

    8

    gr20

    reed, benjiman

    arapahoe

    county

    42

    12

    gr19

    reed, caddy

    arapahoe

    county

    17

    29

    gr19

    reed, caroline

    boulder

    s.boulder valley-b cit

    2

    11

    gr19

    reed, charles

    jefferson

    golden city

    11

    30

    gr20

    reed, charlotte

    jefferson

    golden city

    42

    21

    gr20

    reed, clinton

    gilpin

    central city

    23

    29

    gr20

    reed, crawford

    park

    hamilton

    13

    1

    gr20

    reed, deborah

    arapahoe

    city of denver

    35

    6

    gr19

    reed, dora l

    arapahoe

    county

    23

    28

    gr19

    reed, elijah m

    arapahoe

    county

    23

    18

    books: stars and stripes: u.s. military newspapers in the library of congress (main reading room, library of congress)
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    stars and stripes: u.s. military newspapers in the library of congress

    books with citations for stars and stripes: post-world war ii

    baker, george.
    sad sack. new york: simon and schuster, 1944. 237 p.
    lc call number: d745.2 .b32
    lc control number: 44007951

    baker was a staff sergeant who wrote the sad sack cartoon strip for yank, the weekly army magazine. the name came from "a whittled-down version of an old and unprintable epithet for an inept rookie."


    bernstein, walter.
    inside out: a memoir of the blacklist. new york: a.a. knopf, 1996. 292 p. index.
    lc call number: pn1998.3.b477 a3 1996
    lc control number: 96012569

    a correspondent for yank, bernstein in his autobiography discusses the many encounters he had with staff from stars and stripes. after the war, bernstein became a successful screenwriter despite being blacklisted for eight years because of his political beliefs.


    berube, allan.
    coming out under fire: the history of gay men and women in world war two. newyork: free press, 1990. xiii, 377 p. ill.
    lc call number: d769.2.b46 1990
    lc control number: 89025653

    traces the military use of "undesirable discharges," with references to gay issues that appeared in the pages of stars and stripes and yank.


    block, herbert.
    herblock: a cartoonist's life. new york: macmillan, 1993. x, 372 p. ill., index.
    lc call number: nc1429.b625 a2 1993
    lc control number: 93010098

    although not a cartoonist for stars and stripes, pulitzer prize winner herbert block writes in chapter 10 about his time in the military during world war ii and his failed attempt at joining the newspaper staff.


    breger, david.
    "gi joe" ("private breger"): from the pages of ‘yank' and ‘stars and stripes' from world
    war i to vietnam
    . garden city, n.y.: blue ribbon books, 1945. 96 p. ill.
    lc call number: d745.2 .b65
    lc control number: 45035035

    breger coined one of the most famous terms to come out of the war when he began his cartoon strip in 1942 for yank magazine and stars and stripes.


    d'este, carlo.
    patton: a genius for war. new york: harpercollins publishers, 1995. ix, 977 p. ill., maps,
    bibliography, index.
    lc call number: e745.p3 d46 1995
    lc control number: 95038433

    this biography of general george s. patton documents his confrontation with bill mauldin, a cartoonist for stars and stripes, concerning mauldin's depiction of american soldiers. includes other reports by stars and stripes about patton and the war.


    dowell, edwin e. and leo parenti, ed.
    the stars and stripes, germany edition. pfungstadt, germany: stars and stripes, 1945. 33 p. ill.,
    maps.
    lc call number: d731 .s7267
    lc control number: 47024044

    a history of the german edition of the newspaper, including information about the staff, circulation, administration, and the physical plant. with photographs of the staff, cartoons, and line illustrations.


    giesberg, jean m.
    star spangled banter: a study of g.i. humor in the stars and stripes from world war i to vietnam. houston, tx: phd dissertation, university of houston, 1981. 243 p.
    lc call number (print): none
    lc call number (microfiche): aat8125926
    lc control number: none

    describes the types of humor that were popular in each of four wartime periods during the 20th century. concludes that the presence of humor is a response to sustained fear and can be a tool for survival, and does not necessarily indicate insensitivity.


    hogan, charles a., and john welsh.
    puptent poets of the stars and stripes. mediterranean. compiled by charles a.hogan and john welsh. naples, italy: 1945. 113 p. ill.
    lc call number: d745.2.s72
    lc control number: 45006035

    anthology of g.i. poetry that appeared in the mediterranean edition of stars and stripes. edited, illustrated, and compiled by soldiers assigned to the newspaper.


    hutton, oram c. and andrew a. rooney.
    the story of the stars and stripes. new york: farrar & rinehart, 1946. xi.
    lc call number: d731.s73 h8
    lc control number: 46000767

    this light-hearted book became the screenplay for an mgm film. the authors provide numerous anecdotes of their war-time experiences. rooney later became a regular contributor to the cbs tv news magazine "60 minutes."


    kennett, lee b.
    g.i.: the american soldier in world war ii. new york: scribner, 1987. xi, 265 p. ill., bibliography, index.
    lc call number: d769.1 .k46 1987
    lc control number: 86026253

    focuses on the daily life of a soldier and the vicissitudes he suffered, with references to articles and letters in stars and stripes.


    kluger, steve.
    yank, the army weekly: world war ii from the guys who brought you victory. new york: st. martin's press, c1991. xii, 356 p. ill., bibliography.
    lc call number: d769.2 .k58 1990
    lc control number: 90037306

    a year-by-year account, beginning in may 1942, of action during the war written by staff writers of the weekly. includes letters, cartoons, and army jokes to yank by g.i.'s.


    mann, klaus.
    the turning point: thirty-five years of this century: the autobiography of klaus mann. introduction by shelley l. frisch. new york: markus wiener, 1984. 379 p.
    lc call number: pt2625.a435 z475 1984
    lc control number: 83027414

    in the last chapter of his autobiography the author writes about his brief experience as a staff writer for stars and stripes. klaus was the eldest son of thomas mann, the famous german writer.


    mauldin, bill.
    bill maulden's army. new york: sloane, 1951. 383 p. ill.
    lc call number: d745.2 .m318
    lc control number: 51014762

    collection of cartoons that appeared in the stars and stripes. bill mauldin won pulitzer prizes in 1945 for his depictions of g.i.s during the war, and in1959 as a cartoonist for the st. louis post dispatch.


    ----------. upfront. new york: norton, 1968. x, 228 p. ill.
    lc call number: d745.2 .m34 1968
    lc control number: 68024264

    recollections of mauldin's career as a pulitzer prize winning cartoonist for stars and stripes during world war ii. he was known for highlighting the ironies and inequities of the military, much to the irritation of army commanders, especially general george s. patton.


    meyer, robert, ed.
    the stars and stripes story of world war ii. new york: d. mckay co., 1960. 504 p. ill., index.
    lc call number: d739.s7
    lc control number: 60009567

    lengthy excerpts from the various editions of the newspaper edited by a former correspondent for the paper with a foreword by omar n. bradley and a two-page appendix of background and statistics about stars and stripes.


    page one: the front page history of world war ii as presented in the new york times. new york : galahad books, 1996. 186 p.
    lc call number: d735 .p26 1996 folio
    lc control number: 45036055

    reproductions of the front pages of the new york times during world war ii. complete issues of the newspaper are available on microfilm in the newspaper and current periodical reading room.


    parrish, thomas, ed.
    the simon and schuster encyclopedia of world war ii. new york: simon and schuster, 1978. 767 p. ill., bibliography, index.
    lc call number: d740 .s57 mrr alcove
    lc control number: 78009590

    short articles alphabetically arranged dealing with the events, persons, places, equipment, and terms of the war with a brief but incisive entry for stars and stripes.


    reporting world war two. 2 vols. new york: library of america, 1995. ill., map.
    lc call number: pn4867 .r47 1995
    lc control number: 94045463

    anthology of newspaper and magazine articles, transcripts of radio broadcasts, and book excerpts by american reporters and writers from 1938 to 1946. includes references to the stars and stripes, biographical notes about the authors, and a glossary of military terms.


    sharnik, john and oliver gregg howard, eds.
    stripes: the first five years of the g.i.'s newspaper. pfungstadt, germany: stars and stripes,
    1947. 125 p. ill.
    lc call number: d731.s7295 1947
    lc control number: 48012639

    personal vignettes written by reporters for stars and stripes about their role in world war two. includes cartoons and photographs of the newspaper offices.


    shnayerson, michael.
    irwin shaw: a biography. new york : putnam, c1989. 447 p. ill., bibliography, index.
    lc call number: ps3537.h384 z86 1989
    lc control number: 89031019

    chapter 7 provides a brief chronicle of novelist and playwright irwin shaw's experience contributing to stars and stripes and his inability to gain a permanent staff position because of suspicions about his leftist political leanings.


    snyder, louis leo.
    louis l. snyder's historical guide to world war two. westport, conn: greenwood press, 1982. xii, 838 p. bibliography, index.
    lc call number: d740 .s65 1982 mrr alcove
    lc control number: 81013433

    this encyclopedia for world war ii has multiple entries for stars and stripes.


    the stars and stripes: world war two front pages. new york: bonanza books, 1987. 250 p.
    lc call number: d735.s73 1987
    lc control number: 87007166


    united states. army. 4th armored division.
    what they said about the fourth armored division. landshut, germany: printed by herdez, 1945.
    lc call number: d796.305 4th .a5
    lc control number: 84216691

    excerpts from world war ii coverage of the 4th armored division appearing in american and british newspapers and magazines, including stars and stripes.


    voss, frederick.
    reporting the war: the journalistic coverage of world war two. washington, d.c.: smithsonian institution press for the national portrait gallery, 1994. xiii, 218 p. ill., bibliography.
    lc call number: d798.v67 1994
    lc control number: 93036113

    a glossy pictorial journalistic history of the war. has noteworthy chapters on general george s. patton's confrontation with cartoonist bill mauldin of stars and stripes over the artist's depiction of soldiers, and a review of the african american press in wartime.


    yank: the story of world war two as written by the soldiers. by the editors of yank. new york: greenwich house, 1984. 262 p.
    lc call number: d769.2.y36 1984
    lc control number: 84010265

    a contemporary of stars and stripes, yank was produced weekly with twenty-one editions printed in seventeen locations. this book includes a facsimile of the v-j day issue of yank (september 7, 1945), along with personal narratives by enlisted men.


    zumwalt, ken.
    the stars and stripes: world war two and the early years. austin, tx: eakin press, 1989. xii, 295 p. ill.
    lc call number: d731.s726643 z86 1989
    lc control number: 88016314

    personal narrative by the former managing editor of the european edition of the stars and stripes in the immediate postwar period. more a reminiscing of his time with the newspaper than a history of stars and stripes; however zumwalt does discuss censorship frankly, and in the epilogue includes a brief history of the paper through the mid-1980s. appendix has a duty roster for the newspaper from 1942 to 1955.

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    ' b' books: stars and stripes: u.s. military newspapers in the library of congress (main reading room, library of congress) the library of congress >> especially for researchers >> research centers home >> bibliographies & guides >> stars & stripes find in stars & stripes guide main reading room pages researchers web pages all library of congress pages stars and stripes: u.s. military newspapers in the library of congress books with citations for stars and stripes: post-world war ii baker, george. sad sack. new york: simon and schuster, 1944. 237 p. lc call number: d745.2 .b32 lc control number: 44007951 baker was a staff sergeant who wrote the sad sack cartoon strip for yank, the weekly army magazine. the name came from "a whittled-down version of an old and unprintable epithet for an inept rookie." bernstein, walter. inside out: a memoir of the blacklist. new york: a.a. knopf, 1996. 292 p. index. lc call number: pn1998.3.b477 a3 1996 lc control number: 96012569 discusses the many encounters he had with staff from stars and stripes. after the war, bernstein became a successful screenwriter despite being blacklisted for eight years because of a correspondent for yank, bernstein in his autobiography his political beliefs. berube, allan. coming out under fire: the history of gay men and women in world war two. newyork: free press, 1990. xiii, 377 p. ill. lc call number: d769.2.b46 1990 lc control number: 89025653 with references to gay issues that appeared in the pages of stars traces the military use of "undesirable discharges," and stripes and yank. block, herbert. herblock: a cartoonist's life. new york: macmillan, 1993. x, 372 p. ill., index. lc call number: nc1429.b625 a2 1993 lc control number: 93010098 although not a cartoonist for stars and stripes, pulitzer the military during world war ii and his failed attempt at joining prize winner herbert block writes in chapter 10 about his time in the newspaper staff. breger, david. "gi joe" ("private breger"): from the pages of 'yank' and 'stars and stripes' from world war i to vietnam. garden city, n.y.: blue ribbon books, 1945. 96 p. ill. lc call number: d745.2 .b65 lc control number: 45035035 when he began his cartoon strip in 1942 for yank magazine breger coined one of the most famous terms to come out of the war and stars and stripes. d'este, carlo. patton: a genius for war. new york: harpercollins publishers, 1995. ix, 977 p. ill., maps, bibliography, index. lc call number: e745.p3 d46 1995 lc control number: 95038433 with bill mauldin, a cartoonist for stars and stripes, concerning mauldin's depiction of american soldiers. includes other this biography of general george s. patton documents his confrontation reports by stars and stripes about patton and the war. dowell, edwin e. and leo parenti, ed. the stars and stripes, germany edition. pfungstadt, germany: stars and stripes, 1945. 33 p. ill., maps. lc call number: d731 .s7267 lc control number: 47024044 a history of the german edition of the newspaper, including information about the staff, circulation, administration, and the physical plant. with photographs of the staff, cartoons, and line illustrations. giesberg, jean m. star spangled banter: a study of g.i. humor in the stars and stripes from world war i to vietnam. houston, tx: phd dissertation, university of houston, 1981. 243 p. lc call number (print): none lc call number (microfiche): aat8125926 lc control number: none wartime periods during the 20th century. concludes that the presence of humor is a response to sustained fear and can be a tool for survival, describes the types of humor that were popular in each of four and does not necessarily indicate insensitivity. hogan, charles a., and john welsh. puptent poets of the stars and stripes. mediterranean. compiled by charles a.hogan and john welsh. naples, italy: 1945. 113 p. ill. lc call number: d745.2.s72 lc control number: 45006035 of stars and stripes. edited, illustrated, and compiled anthology of g.i. poetry that appeared in the mediterranean edition by soldiers assigned to the newspaper. hutton, oram c. and andrew a. rooney. the story of the stars and stripes. new york: farrar & rinehart, 1946. xi. lc call number: d731.s73 h8 lc control number: 46000767 this light-hearted book became the screenplay for an mgm film. the authors provide numerous anecdotes of their war-time experiences. rooney later became a regular contributor to the cbs tv news magazine "60 minutes." kennett, lee b. g.i.: the american soldier in world war ii. new york: scribner, 1987. xi, 265 p. ill., bibliography, index. lc call number: d769.1 .k46 1987 lc control number: 86026253 suffered, with references to articles and letters in stars focuses on the daily life of a soldier and the vicissitudes he and stripes. kluger, steve. yank, the army weekly: world war ii from the guys who brought you victory. new york: st. martin's press, c1991. xii, 356 p. ill., bibliography. lc call number: d769.2 .k58 1990 lc control number: 90037306 the war written by staff writers of the weekly. includes letters, a year-by-year account, beginning in may 1942, of action during cartoons, and army jokes to yank by g.i.'s. mann, klaus. the turning point: thirty-five years of this century: the autobiography of klaus mann. introduction by shelley l. frisch. new york: markus wiener, 1984. 379 p. lc call number: pt2625.a435 z475 1984 lc control number: 83027414 in the last chapter of his autobiography the author writes about his brief experience as a staff writer for stars and stripes. klaus was the eldest son of thomas mann, the famous german writer. mauldin, bill. bill maulden's army. new york: sloane, 1951. 383 p. ill. lc call number: d745.2 .m318 lc control number: 51014762 collection of cartoons that appeared in the stars and stripes. bill mauldin won pulitzer prizes in 1945 for his depictions of g.i.s during the war, and in1959 as a cartoonist for the st. louis post dispatch. -. upfront. new york: norton, 1968. x, 228 p. ill. lc call number: d745.2 .m34 1968 lc control number: 68024264 for stars and stripes during world war ii. he was known for highlighting the ironies and inequities of the military, much recollections of mauldin's career as a pulitzer prize winning cartoonist to the irritation of army commanders, especially general george s. patton. meyer, robert, ed. the stars and stripes story of world war ii. new york: d. mckay co., 1960. 504 p. ill., index. lc call number: d739.s7 lc control number: 60009567 lengthy excerpts from the various editions of the newspaper edited by a former correspondent for the paper with a foreword by omar n. bradley and a two-page appendix of background and statistics about stars and stripes. page one: the front page history of world war ii as presented in the new york times. new york : galahad books, 1996. 186 p. lc call number: d735 .p26 1996 folio lc control number: 45036055 during world war ii. complete issues of the newspaper are available on microfilm in the newspaper reproductions of the front pages of the new york times and current periodical reading room. parrish, thomas, ed. the simon and schuster encyclopedia of world war ii. new york: simon and schuster, 1978. 767 p. ill., bibliography, index. lc call number: d740 .s57 mrr alcove lc control number: 78009590 persons, places, equipment, and terms of the war with a brief but short articles alphabetically arranged dealing with the events, incisive entry for stars and stripes. reporting world war two. 2 vols. new york: library of america, 1995. ill., map. lc call number: pn4867 .r47 1995 lc control number: 94045463 broadcasts, and book excerpts by american reporters and writers from 1938 to 1946. includes references to the stars and stripes, biographical notes about the authors, and a glossary of military anthology of newspaper and magazine articles, transcripts of radio terms. sharnik, john and oliver gregg howard, eds. stripes: the first five years of the g.i.'s newspaper. pfungstadt, germany: stars and stripes, 1947. 125 p. ill. lc call number: d731.s7295 1947 lc control number: 48012639 about their role in world war two. includes cartoons and photographs personal vignettes written by reporters for stars and stripes of the newspaper offices. shnayerson, michael. irwin shaw: a biography. new york : putnam, c1989. 447 p. ill., bibliography, index. lc call number: ps3537.h384 z86 1989 lc control number: 89031019 chapter 7 provides a brief chronicle of novelist and playwright and his inability to gain a permanent staff position because of irwin shaw's experience contributing to stars and stripes suspicions about his leftist political leanings. snyder, louis leo. louis l. snyder's historical guide to world war two. westport, conn: greenwood press, 1982. xii, 838 p. bibliography, index. lc call number: d740 .s65 1982 mrr alcove lc control number: 81013433 this encyclopedia for world war ii has multiple entries for stars and stripes. the stars and stripes: world war two front pages. new york: bonanza books, 1987. 250 p. lc call number: d735.s73 1987 lc control number: 87007166 united states. army. 4th armored division. what they said about the fourth armored division. landshut, germany: printed by herdez, 1945. lc call number: d796.305 4th .a5 lc control number: 84216691 excerpts from world war ii coverage of the 4th armored division appearing in american and british newspapers and magazines, including stars and stripes. voss, frederick. reporting the war: the journalistic coverage of world war two. washington, d.c.: smithsonian institution press for the national portrait gallery, 1994. xiii, 218 p. ill., bibliography. lc call number: d798.v67 1994 lc control number: 93036113 a glossy pictorial journalistic history of the war. has noteworthy chapters on general george s. patton's confrontation with cartoonist depiction of soldiers, and a review of the african american press bill mauldin of stars and stripes over the artist's in wartime. yank: the story of world war two as written by the soldiers. by the editors of yank. new york: greenwich house, 1984. 262 p. lc call number: d769.2.y36 1984 lc control number: 84010265 was produced weekly with twenty-one editions printed in seventeen a contemporary of stars and stripes, yank locations. this book includes a facsimile of the v-j day issue of yank (september 7, 1945), along with personal narratives by enlisted men. zumwalt, ken. the stars and stripes: world war two and the early years. austin, tx: eakin press, 1989. xii, 295 p. ill. lc call number: d731.s726643 z86 1989 lc control number: 88016314 edition of the stars and stripes in the immediate postwar period. more a reminiscing of his time with the newspaper than a history of stars and stripes; however zumwalt does discuss censorship frankly, and in the epilogue includes a brief history of the paper through the mid-1980s. appendix has a duty personal narrative by the former managing editor of the european roster for the newspaper from 1942 to 1955. top of page home >> bibliographies & guides >> stars & stripes find in stars & stripes guide main reading room pages researchers web pages all library of congress pages the library of congress >> especially for researchers >> research centers october 3, 2003 contact us: ask a librarian ' '